遠回り英語学習ー迂ヲ以テ直トナスー

昨日の失態

My note post yesterday was terrible.
But tomorrow is another day.
I will practice English words even harder today.
Some day, I will be able to speak English fluently and crisp.

昨日のnoteの投稿は、非常にまずい事になってしまった。
会社の決算報告書を読者の皆様にお見せするつもりが総勘定元帳をお見せしたようなものである。これでは読者の利益に資することなど覚束ない。

しかし、あのやり方が私の、偽らざる、粉飾のない、混じりっけなしの、１００％ピュアな、「英語学習の"real"」である。

必修の単語をGSLの参考書またはそれ以外の何かの参考書からわからないものを抽出し、それを辞書で引いて丸写しする。丸写しする中で例文は全文筆写、例示されているphraseも主語と時制を補って完成させて筆写する。
すると、例文の中に意味のわからない単語が何個も出てくる。その分からない単語の項目に飛んで逐一辞書の項目全文を筆者する。

大変非効率なのだが、少なくとも私の試してみた英語学習法の中で一番効果の上がる方法であったことから止められずに現在に至っている。

単語だけだと練習しても書いたそばから忘れていく。
単語帳の例文集も英語初学者の私にとっては文法理解が進んでいないので英文の構造が理解できない。したがって単語帳の例文も覚えられない。
かといって文法関連の書籍を何冊か購入してみたが「積読」になるばかり…。
「ええい、ちくしょう。どうにでもなれ。こうなったら辞書を使って単語を重要なものから一語一語の項目を全文筆写してやる。」
こんな投げやりな気持ちで「ままよ」と始めたのがこの勉強法である。

が、しかし…この方法でもすぐに忘れるのには閉口した。
辞書の項目は大まかに分けて
・意味
・解説文
・例文
という３つの内容が含まれているが、この中で最も大事なのは例文であると私は考える。例文を理解すれば主語や目的語を変えたり時制を変えたりしてオリジナルの英文を作ることが出来るからである。
しかし、辞書に書いてある例文を丸写ししていただけでは単語の意味も覚えないし、解説文も理解できないし、何にもならないのである。
例文を延々と筆写し続けたが、まったくと言っていいほど力が付かなかった。

私はなぜ例文を理解できないのか考えたが、理由は一つしかないと思った。
それは…

例文に出てくるターゲットとなる英単語以外の英単語の意味・用法が分からない！

ということである。

例文を理解する際当然のことだが、覚えようとする単語そのものだけでなく、例文に使われている言い回し、単語の意味、和訳の例文と直訳した文の違いなどを理解しないと、腑に落ちないし、覚えられない。

そこで私は、覚えようとする単語の例文で分からない単語・コロケーション・言い回しが出てきたときには逐一それを筆写することにしたのである。

最初はもっと効率の良い方法をと思わないこともなかったが、
単語を５０回ノートに書いても次の日には忘れてしまうのだから
まあ、非効率でもやってみようと肚がすわった。
それから中断もはさんでトータルで２年くらい続けているが、
効果を少しずつ実感している。

この学習法を続けると英語のライティング能力、リーディング能力、語彙力、英米事情理解などが総合的に身につくのではないかと考えられる。
また、辞書に親しむことによって百科事典など辞書・事典の類に苦手意識がなくなるという効果もあった。

もちろん、英語を短時日に習得したい人は、こんな勉強する暇はない。
多くの英語学習指導者の方々が説いておられる効率的でわかりやすい学習法を最初からやっていた方が良いに決まっている。

ただし、私においては「辞書丸写し・関連単語丸写し法」が英語学習のモチベーションの維持につながり、今日も英語の勉強を続ける礎となっているのは紛れもない事実なのである。

恐らく英語習得の一番大事な事は
「英語に惚れる」「英語を好きになる」
ということであろう。

誰かを恋焦がれるように好きになれば、その人のことで頭がいっぱいになる。四六時中その人の事を考える。「誰か」を「英語」に置き換えてみればよい。英語を好きになれば、自然と頭の中は英語をどうやって習得してやろうかと日夜考えるようになる。

きっかけは人それぞれ何でも良いと思う。映画でも、英会話をしてみたいという憧れでも、英語で読み書きが出来、ペラペラ話せる自分を強く妄想することでも、異性にモテたいためでも何でもよい。

一番難しいのは、英語学習を継続する強いモチベーションを維持し続けることではなかろうか。
私は英語は初学者の域を出ないが、英語を勉強することが苦では無くなった。どんな勉強法であれ、続けていれば徐々に効果は出てくるのだと思う。
その効果を最近実感しつつあるので英語の勉強が楽しくなるし、好きになった。

恋愛であれば相手のあることだから努力の実らないことも多いが、英語は逃げない。継続と努力あるのみである。

「努力を継続する人にのみ運命の女神は成功を授ける」

それは江戸時代でも平安時代でも、昭和の御代でも令和の御代でも変わらないことである。門地がモノをいう平安時代でさえ、おそらく一生懸命努力を続けて地主になったり商人として成功した名もなき庶民も数多くいたはずである。いわんや令和の御代においておや。

今は私の生まれた昭和・平成時代に比べてネットが発達し、本当に便利になった。Webで海外の英語テキストを簡単に手に入れることが出来る。
ネットを活用しない手はない。昔より効率よく英語を学習する環境は整っているのだ。

しかしながら、アナログの努力も忘れてはならないと思われる。人間の脳はデジタルよりアナログの方が相性が良いと思う。ITを駆使しつつ、アナログな努力を怠らないことが英語習得の早道ではないかと思う。

English grammar terms

noun 　名詞
adjective　形容詞
verb　動詞
intransitive verb 自動詞
transitive verb 他動詞
adverb　副詞
preposition　前置詞
conjunction　接続詞
auxiliary verb 助動詞
interjection 間投詞
pronoun 代名詞
article 冠詞

prefix　接頭辞
suffix 接尾辞

gerund　動名詞
past participle 過去分詞
present participle 現在分詞
participle 分詞

present progressive form 現在進行形
past progressive form 過去進行形
future progressive form 未来進行形

present perfect tense　未来完了形
past perfect tense　過去完了形
future perfect tense　現在完了形

present tense 現在形
past tense 過去形
future tense 未来形

subject 主語
verb 動詞
object 目的語
complement 補語

direct object 直接目的語
indirect object 間接目的語

singular 単数形
plural 複数形

first person singular　一人称単数
first person plural 一人称複数
second person singular 二人称単数
second person plural 二人称複数
third person singular 三人称単数
third person plural 三人称複数

etcetera

文法用語を上記のようにあげつらってみたが、なんとも味気ない。
これだけではつまらない記事になってしまうので、
ここからは各単語について私が調べたことを詳述していきたい。

Explanation of Parts of Speech

noun

語源　ラテン語　nomen（名前）から
countable noun [naʊn] plural nouns
(文法）名詞　略記　n.
〚形容詞的に〛名詞の　名詞的な

an abstract noun 抽象名詞
a concrete noun 具象名詞
a proper noun 固有名詞

noun of multitude 衆多名詞　＝　collective noun 集合名詞
noun phrase ＝noun group　名詞句

（wisdom 英和辞典　第2版 　1252.R　筆者補足）

昨日の記事から再掲した。昨日はここから心の赴くままに単語の意味調べを書きなぐったが、本日は理性的にいきたい。

実は私はすでに　'Collins COBUILD ADVANCED LEARNER'S DICTIONARY'　という初学者向けの英英辞典を所有している。イギリスの辞書である。
（私はミーハーなのでKing's Englishに馬鹿みたいな憧れを抱いているのだ。British Accentを身に着けるべく'Get Rid Your Accent'もシリーズを２冊買ったのは内緒の話である。）

英語を英語で勉強するのは一番歯ごたえのある勉強法ではなかろうか。
ということでCOBUILDのnounの記述を引用してみたい。

noun[naʊn]
plural nouns
1. N-count
A noun is a word such as 'car', 'love', or 'Anne' which is used to refer to a person or thing.

どうだろうか、初学者向けの英英辞典だからとても英文が分かり易い。
念のために訳すと…

名詞は人や物事を示すために使われる言葉で例えばcarやlove、Anneなどがあります。
くらいのものであろう。

car = concrete noun 具象名詞
love = abstract noun 抽象名詞
Anne = proper noun 固有名詞

である。

２．→ see also collective noun, count noun, mass noun, proper noun, singular noun, uncount noun

こちらも参照…　集合名詞　可算名詞　質量名詞　固有名詞　単数名詞　可算名詞　と書いてある。

collective noun

[kəˈlɛktɪv naʊn]
N-count A collective noun is a noun such as 'family' or 'team' that refers to a group of people or things.

集合名詞は例えばfamilyとかteamのような人々や物のグループを示す名詞である。

count noun

[kaʊnt naʊn]
plural count nouns
N-count
A count noun is a noun such as 'bird', 'chair', or 'year' which has a singular and a plural form and is always used after a determiner in the singular.

可算名詞は例えばbird chair またはyearなどで単数形と複数形の形をもっており、単数形では常に限定詞の後で使われます。　

determiner…はて？　初めて聞きました。mass nounの前に調べてみよう。

determiner

[dɪˈtɜːmɪnə]
N-count
１．（文法）限定詞　決定詞　（a, the, each, some, this, myなど）。
２．決定する人（もの）

(wisdom 488.R)

なるほどわかってきました。可算名詞は単数形ではa the this myなどが前につかないと気持ちが悪いのですね。単数形を書くときは気を付けなければいけませんです。

determiner
[dɪˈtɜːmɪnə]
N-count
１．In grammar, a determiner is a word which is used the beginning of a noun group to indicate, for example, which thing you are referring to or whether you are referring to one thing or several. Common English determiners are 'a', 'the', 'some', 'this', and 'each'.
 
ちょっと私には難しい文になりました。google翻訳も使って訳すと
限定詞は文法においては、名詞句の始まりを示すために使われます。たとえば、どのものを指しているのか、または 1 つのものを指しているのか、複数のことを指しているのかを示すために名詞句の先頭で使用される言葉です。
 
ネットで調べると限定詞はいろんな種類があるようです。
 
COBUILDのgeneral grammar guideの（1810）にDeterminersの解説があります。
 
 
◎Determiners
A determiner is used to point more precisely to the person, thing, or idea that is being talked about. Determiners make the reference of nouns more specific. If I say this car it is clear that I mean a particular car which is near me. If I change it to my car I am saying something quite specific about ownership.
 
Determiners include:
・The indefinite article (a) and the definite article (the).
 
・Words known as demonstratives, that show where something is especially in relation to the speaker or writer: this, that, these, those.
 
・Words known as possessives, that show who or what something belongs to my, your, his, its, our, their.
 
・Words known as quantifiers, that show the amount of something: some, any, few, enough, much
 
・Cardinal numbers(one, two, three, etc.) and ordinal numbers(first, second, third, etc.)
 
・Word known as distributives: each, every, either, neither.
 
・Word known as exclamatives, that are used in exclamations: what, such.
 
 
限定詞は人・物・アイディアなどをについて話すときにそれをより正確に指し示すために使われます。限定詞は名詞の言及をより具体的にさせます。
もし「この車」と言うととくに私の近くにある車を意味することがはっきりとする。「my car」と言い換えると私が特に所有権について言っていることになる。
 
限定詞は以下のものが含まれます。
 
・冠詞　不定冠詞a　と　定冠詞　the
 
・指示詞　として知られる語群、　どこに何かがあるか特に話し手、書き手との関連で示す。　this, that, these, thoseなど
 
・所有格　として知られる語群、誰かまたは何かが何かに属していることを示す。my, your, his, its, our, theirなど
 
・数量詞　として知られる語群、　何かの量を示す。　some, any, fewなど
 
・基数　one, two, three, など　と序数　first, second, thirdなど
 
・配分詞　として知られる語群　each, every, either, neitherなど
 
・エクスクラマティヴとして知られる語群　what, suchなど

本当に短い句や長い節は訳すのが難しいですね。語彙力もないし、読解力も足りないので悩んでしまいます。私の訳は参考どころか害になるかも知れないので読み飛ばしてください。勉強の実況中継しているようなものなので…。
 

mass noun

[mæs naʊn]
(文法)（１）質量名詞（通例物質を表す不可算名詞だが、数えたり種類を表したりする時には可算名詞となる。（coffee, fruitなど）
(wisdom1128 L mass)
 
mass communicationのmassですね。塊、集まりという意味があります。6番目の意味に質量（物理学用語）という意味がありました。
 
mass noun
[mæs naʊn]
1.    N-count
A mass noun is a noun such as ‘wine’ which is usually uncount but is used with ‘a’, ‘an’ or used in the plural when its refers to types of that substance, as in ‘a range of Australian wines’
2.    N-count
In some descriptions of grammar, a mass noun is the same as an uncount
noun.
 
１．質量名詞は例えばワインのような語があげられる。ワインはたいてい数えることが出来ない（不可算扱い）が、例えば「多種多様なオーストラリアワイン」’a range of Australian wines’ のようにその物質の種類を言い表す時にa, anを付けるか複数形にして使われる。
２．いくつかの文法の記述では、質量名詞は不可算名詞と同じものである。

proper noun

[ˈprɒpə naʊn]
also proper name
A proper noun is the name of particular person place, organization or thing.
Proper nouns begin with a capital letter. Examples are ‘Margaret’,’London’ and ‘the United Nations’, Compare common noun.
 
固有名詞とは特定の名前で人、場所、組織または物事の事です。固有名詞は大文字で始められます。例えば「マーガレット」、「ロンドン」、「国際連合」。一般名詞と比較してください。
 

common noun

ˈkɒmən naʊn
N-count A common noun is a noun such as ‘tree’, ‘water’, or ‘beauty’ that is not the name of one particular person or thing. Compare proper noun.
一般名詞とは「木」「水」または「美」など１人しかいないまたは１つしかない物事ではない名前の事です。　固有名詞と比較してください。

singular noun　(singular nouns)

[ˈsɪŋɡjələ naʊn]
A singular noun is a noun such as ‘standstill’ or ‘vicinity’ that does not have a plural form and always has a determiner such as ‘a’ or ‘the’ in front of it.
単数名詞
単数名詞とは「停止」または「近所」のような複数形を取らない名詞で、常にaまたはtheのような限定詞が名詞の前につきます。

uncount noun (uncount nouns)

[ʌnˈkaʊnt naʊn]
N-count An uncount noun is a noun such as ‘gold’, ‘information’, or ‘furniture’ which has only one form and can be used without determiner.
不可算名詞
不可算名詞は「金」「情報」または「家具」のような単数形の名詞で限定詞なしで使うことが出来ます。

ではCOBUILDのGeneral grammar guideのNounの項目を観てみましょう。
 

Nouns (General grammar guide)

 
A　noun is word that labels a thing or an idea.
 
Proper nouns are the name of people, places, or things, and start with capital letters.
 
John Lennon China Mount Fuji Thursday
 
Common nouns are all the other nouns that refer to things. They can be divided into the following groups:
 
Abstract nouns. These refer to things that you cannot see or touch:
 
honesty anger idea time
 
Concrete nouns are things you can see or tach:
 
dog teacher stone sugar
 
A concrete noun may refer to a living thing (animate noun) or a physical object(inanimate noun).
 
animate noun 有生名詞
inanimate noun 無生名詞
 
Collective nouns refer to collections people or animals:
 
a herd of cows a warm of bees
 
Compound nouns are nouns made from two or more words. Some are written as one word, some as two words, and some with a hyphen:
 
teapot washing machine break-in
 
Many compound nouns have more than one acceptable form (e.g. stomach ache/ stomachache). Check in the dictionary if you are not sure.

Countable and Uncountable nouns
 
Countable nouns refer to things that we can count: one cat, two cats, seventeen cats, and so on. They have singular and plural forms, which are shown by the spelling. They must be used with determiner if they are singular:
 
Dogs ran wild in the streets.
The dog is loose again.
 
Fetch a chair for Sumit, will you?
We‘ve bought six new chairs.
 
Uncountable nounｓ　refer to things that we cannot count:
 
Sadia asked me for some advice.
Anna gave us some more information about her work.
Homework occupied much of Sonia’s evening.
Our knowledge of outer space is increasing daily.
 
Uncountable nouns do not usually have plural form. They are followed by a singular verb. They are not normally used with the indefinite article.
(You cannot talk about an advice or a money.)
 
 
Mass nouns refer to substances that can be divided or measured but not counted. They do not usually have an indefinite article in front:
 
Meat is usually more expensive than cheese.
Sugar is quite cheap.
 
Mass nouns only take a plural in special cases. for instance when they refer to a particular type or types of the substance, or when they refer to a single serving of the substance:
 
Ros brought out a tempting selection of French cheeses.
The principal sugars are glucose, sucrose, and fructose.
Two teas please.

(2024.5.29　nounの部分加筆）

adjective　

形容詞
(wisdom 英和辞典より)
 
adjective [ˈæʤɪktɪv] 〚語源は「・・・に付けられた」〛
noun plural adjectives
countable noun 1.〚文法〛形容詞
adjective 1.〚文法〛形容詞の 形容詞的な；　不可的な、　自立しない　従属した
２．〚法〛手続き[形式]上の　
adjectively adverb
 
adjectival [ˌæʤɛkˈtaɪvᵊl]
adjective 〚文法〛〚通例nounの前で〛形容詞的の（働きをする）　形容詞的な　countable noun 形容詞相当語句
adjectivally adverb
 
 
adjective [ˈæʤɪktɪv]
(adjectives) n-count An adjective is a word such as ‘big’, ‘dead’ or ‘financial’ that describes a person or thing, or gives extra information about them. Adjectives usually come before nouns or after verbs.
 
形容詞は「大きい」、「死んだ」または「財務の」のような、人や物を説明するまたは、それについての追加の情報を与える品詞です。形容詞はたいてい名詞の前に来るか、動詞の後に来ます。
 
adjective group [ˈæʤɪktɪv ɡruːp]
(adjective groups) n-count An adjective group or adjectival group is a group of words based on an adjective, such as ‘very nice’ or ‘interested in football’. An adjective group can also consist simply of an adjective.
 
形容詞句は 形容詞に基づく言葉のかたまりで、「とても、よい」または「サッカーに興味がある」のような句のことです。形容詞句もまた単なる形容詞と一致することができます。
 
◎be based on に基づく
◎consist 一致する
◎simply 単に
 
adjectival[ˌæʤɛkˈtaɪvᵊl]
adj [usu adj n]
Adjectival means relating to adjectives or like an adjective
adjectival は形容詞に関連することや、形容詞のようなものを意味する。

ここからはCOBUILD　General grammar guideの解説です。
 
Adjectives
An adjective gives more information about a noun. Adjectives help us describe or pick out which particular thing among many is being referred to. Adjectives are sometimes called ‘describing word’
 
◎describe [dɪˈskraɪb]　transitive verb
＜人・物・事など＞の特徴を述べる　言い表す　説明する
[describe A as C] ＜人＞がA＜人・物・事＞をCだと言う　称する
◎description countable noun　記述　描写　説明　説明書　人相書き
 
pick out [pɪk aʊt]　選び出す　見つけ出す
 
referred [rɪˈfɜːd] refers[ rɪˈfɜːz] referred [rɪˈfɜːd] refering [rɪˈfɜːrɪŋ]
AをCと呼ぶ　Aに言及する　はっきり口にする　
（言葉・数字などが）A（事・物など）を示す
※give 他１語法（５）　動　＋　A　＋　B　構文
動＋A＋B構文をとる動詞は「授与動詞」と呼ばれ、一般的に何らかの意味で間接目的語Aに直接目的語Bを与えることを表す
 
a man a tall man
their TV their new, wide-screen TV
the cat the fat, black-and-white cat
 
When there is more than one adjective, commas are often used between them, though it is common to see lists of adjectives without commas too. It is possible to use several adjectives at once, but in practice more than four is uncommon:
 
a happy young blonde German girl
beautiful old English thatched cottages
 
◎comma [ˈkɒmə] 1.コンマ、　読点
◎at once [ət wʌns] (1)すぐに　ただちに　（２）同時に　1度に　
◎practice [ˈpræktɪs] 習慣　練習　稽古　練習する
◎uncommon [ʌnˈkɒmən] まれな　めったにない
 
The comparative form of an adjective is used to compare two people, things, or states:
 
Anna is taller than Mary, but Mary is older.
 
The superlative form is used for more than two people, things, or states, where one of them has more of a quality than all the others:
 
That is the smallest camera I have ever seen.
 
There are two ways in which the comparative and superlative forms of adjectives are formed:
 
You add -er(comparative) or -est(superlative) to the adjective. Adjectives with one syllable usually take these endings:
 
adjective: 　　bright　　　　　long　　　 sharp
comparative: brighter 　　　　longer　　 sharper
superlative: the brightest the longest the sharpest
 
If the word already ends in -e, the -e must be left off. If a word in -y, it usually takes -est, and the -y changes to -i:
 
adjective: wise pretty weary
comparative: wiser prettier wearier
superlative: the wisest the prettiest the weariest
 
You add to word more or most in front of the adjective. Adjectives with three syllables or more use more or most in front of them:
 
adjective: fortunate relevant
comparative: more fortunate more relevant
superlative: the most fortunate the most relevant
 
Adjectives formed from participles(forms of verbs) use more or most as well:
 
adjective: provoking enthralled
comparative: more provoking more enthralled
superlative: the most provoking the most enthralled
 
Adjectives with two syllables (including those that already end in -er) can follow either pattern or sometimes both patterns. If you are doubtful about two-syllable adjective, use the more/most pattern:
 
adjective: shallow polite
comparative: shallower or more shallow politer or more polite
superlative: the shallowest or the most shallow the politest or
the most polite
 
A small group of irregular adjectives have quite different forms for the comparative and superlative forms:
 
adjective : good bad far
comparative: better worse further
superlative: the best the worst the furthest
 
 
Remember that in formal English more or -er should be used to compare two people, things or states. It is common to see the superlative in sentences such as:
 
Tom and Sam are both twelve, but Tom is tallest.
Which of the two sisters is most beautiful?
 
However, in more formal writing, it is safer to use the comparative:
 
Tom and Sam are both twelve, but Tom is taller.
Which of the two sisters is more beautiful?
 
To indicate the opposite of both the -er/-est and the more/most forms of comparison, less or least is always used:
 
adjective: sharp fortunate interesting involved
comparative: less sharp less fortunate less interesting less involved
superlative:
the least sharp 　the least fortunate the least interesting the least involved

comparative [kəmˈpærətɪv]
3.adj. (adj ＋ n) In grammar, the comparative form of an adjective or adverb shows that something has more of a quality than something else has. For example, 'bigger' is the comparative form of 'big', and ' more quickly' is the comparative form of 'quickly'. Compare superlative.

superlative [suːˈpɜːlətɪv]
3.adj. [adj n] In grammar, the superlative form of an adjective or adverb is the form that indicates that something has more of a quality than anything else in group. For example, 'biggest' is the superlative form of 'big'. Compare comparative.

verb[vɜːb]　動詞

名詞　可算　〚文法〛動詞　｟略｠ v. vb.
a transitive verb [ə ˈtrænsətɪv vɜːb] 他動詞
a intransitive verb [ə ɪnˈtrænsətɪv vɜːb] 自動詞
a regular verb[ə ˈrɛɡjələ vɜːb] 規則動詞
a irregular verb[ə ɪˈrɛɡjələ vɜːb]　不規則動詞
 
verbal[ˈvɜːbᵊl]
形　（比較なし）〚しばしば名の前で〛
１．言葉の　言葉による　言葉の使用に関する（⇔non-verbal）
verbal abuse against woman 女性に対する言葉による暴力
verbal ability 言語能力
verbal skills 言語能力
verbal communication 言葉によるコミュニケーション
２．口頭の（oral）, 口頭による（⇔written）
a verbal contract 口頭契約
a verbal agreement 口頭協定
a verbal message 伝言
give verbal instructions 口頭で指図する
both verbal and written communication skills.
口頭および文書による伝達能力
(!この例のようにverbalは文脈によって１にも２にもとれるので、はっきり２の意味を表すにはoralを用いた方がよい)。
both oral and written communication skills.
３．言葉の上の　用語上の
a verbal dispute 言葉の上の争い
a verbal criticism （内容でなく）字句上の批評
a difference which is merely verbal
(実質的でなく)ただの言葉の上だけの相違
４．一語一語の、逐語的な；　文字通りの（literal）
a verbal translation 逐語訳
a verbal quotation 逐語引用
５．〚文法〛動詞の　動詞的な　動詞から派生した　
a verbal suffix 動詞接尾辞　（darkenの-enのように動詞化するもの）
名　可算　
１．〚文法〛準動詞（形）　（定動詞に対する語で、不定詞・分詞・動名詞をいう→　nominal）
２．英俗〚しばしばverbals〛（警察への）自供　自白
３．（英・くだけて）　毒舌　侮辱　罵声
 
verbal noun 〚文法〛動詞的名詞　（動詞の性質を備えた名詞の事をいい、広くは動名詞と不定詞をさすが、狭義では動名詞の内でも名詞的性質の強いものをさす）
 
verbalize [ˈvɜːbəlaɪz]
動　（かたく）　他　１・・・を言葉で表現する　言語化する
２．〚文法〛＜名詞など＞を動詞化する
自　１．言葉で表現する　
２．冗長である　だらだらと話す
I think that I verbosely talked her at that time.
 
 
verbally [ˈvɜːbəli]
形　１.言葉で　口で　口頭で　言葉の上だけで
２．〚文法〛動詞として
３．逐語的に
 
verbatim [vɜːˈbeɪtɪm]
副　一語一語言葉通りに　逐語的に
形　言葉通りの　逐語的な　
a verbatim translation 逐語訳
 
verb[vɜːb]
1.N-count A verb is a word such as ‘sing’, ‘feel’ or ‘die’ which is used with a subject to say what someone or something does or what happens to them, or to give information about them.
2.See also phrasal verb
 
verbal[ˈvɜːbᵊl]
１． adj. [usually adj n] You use verbal to indicate that something is expressed in speech rather than in writing or action.
They were jostled and subjected to a torrent of verbal abuse.
We have a verbal agreement with her.
verbally[ˈvɜːbəli] adv.
Teachers were threatened with kitchen knives, physically assaulted and verbally abused.
２． adj. [adj n] You use verbal to indicate that something is connected with words and the use of words.
The test has scores for verbal skills and abstract reasoning skills.
３． adj.[usually adj n] In grammar, verbal means relating to a verb.
a verbal noun.
４． See also feature box at debate
 
verbalize[ˈvɜːbəlaɪz]
verbalizes verbalizing verbalized
in British, also use verbalise[ˈvɜːbəlaɪz]
verb If you verbalize your feelings, thought, or ideas, you express them in words [formal]
his inability to verbalize his feelings
 
verbatim[vɜːˈbeɪtɪm]
adv. [adv after v]
If you repeat something verbatim, you use exactly the same words as were used originally.
The President’s speeches are regularly reproduced verbatim in the state-run newspapers.
adj. [adj n] Verbatim is also an adjective.
She gave me a verbatim report of every conversation she’s had this week.
 
verb group[vɜːb ɡruːp]
A verb group or verbal group consists of verb, or of a main verb following a modal or one or more auxiliaries. Examples are ‘walked’ , ‘can see’, and ‘had been waiting’.
 
verbose[vɜːˈbəʊs]
adj. If you describe a person or a piece of writing as verbose, you are critical of them because they use more words than are necessary, and so make you feel bored or annoyed. [formal disapproval]
verbose politicians.
His writing is difficult and often verbose.
 
phrasal verb[ˈfreɪzᵊl vɜːb]
(phrasal verbs)
N-count A phrasal verb is a combination of a verb and an adverb or preposition, for example ‘shut up’ or ‘look after’ which together have a particular meaning.
 
 
intransitive verb [ɪnˈtrænsətɪv vɜːb] 自動詞
形　〚文法〛自動詞の
adj. An intransitive verb does not have an object.
 
transitive verb[ˈtrænsətɪv vɜːb] 他動詞
形　〚文法〛他動詞の
adj. A transitive verb has a direct object.
 
transitivity[]
 
 
Introduction
 
This section gives you the basic rules you need to know about English grammar. In addition, it draws attention to common mistakes and shows you how to avoid them.
 
 

Main verbs

 
Verbs are words that allow us to talk about
activities,
processes,
states of being,
states of mind.
You may have heard verbs referred to as ‘doing words’:
 
This basket holds quite a lot.
John was reading Katherine’s essay.
Anirban is preparing a talk for next week’s class.
Eleni feels much happier now.
I forgot that it was your birthday.
Paul owned several old motorbikes.
 
A verb phrase can be a single word or a group of associated words:
 
he walks
he is walking
he had walked
 
he can walk
he has been walking
he might have been walking
 
Transitive verbs are verbs which have to have an object:
 
like: She likes cheese. (You can’t say just She likes)
describe He described the house. (You can’t say just He described.)
 
Intransitive verbs do not have an object:
 
sneeze: I sneezed loudly. (You can’t sneeze something.)
complain: He’s always complaining. (You can’t complain something.)
 
Many verbs can be transitive or intransitive:
 
Sales levels have increased. (intransitive)
We have increased our spending on training. (transitive)
 
The fog made it difficult to see. (intransitive)
The fog made it difficult to see the mountains(transitive)
 
The infinitive form of the verb is the basic form that you would look up in a dictionary. For instance, if you wanted to look up the verb in this sentence:
 
She had encountered many problems.
 
You would look up the infinitive, encounter, not encountered.
 
In different situations, the infinitive is used with or without to, it is called the bare infinitive
 
The child was too small to reach the switch.
I’m sorry to hear your news.
I don’t know how to do it.
You must lock the door.
 
 

Auxiliary　verb

[ɔːɡˈzɪliəri vɜːb]
 
Auxiliary verbs are used with main verbs in order to allow us to talk about different periods and form questions and negatives.
 
Be and have are the primary auxiliaries A primary auxiliary is used to construct compound tenses:
 
Be is used to make present continuous and past continuous tenses and for the passive:
 
I am working.
We were all wondering about that.
Martin was arrested and held overnight.
 
Have is used make present perfect and past perfect tenses:
Sasha has finished fixing the car.
Amanda had already eaten when we arrived.
 
Do is the supporting auxiliary. It is used in forming negatives, questions, and emphatic statements:
 
 

Modal verbs

Modal verbs are used before other verbs to express ideas such as ability, possibility, and necessity.
 
The main modal verbs in English are:
 
can
could
may
might
must
ought
shall
will
would
 
Modal verbs are different from other verbs because they do not change their form:
 
I can ride a horse.
She can ride a horse.
 
In speech and informal writing, the modal verb will is often shortened to ‘ll(e.g. I’ll, they’ll) and the modal verb would is often shortened to ‘d(e.g. I’d, they’d).
 
Negatives modal verbs are formed like this:
 
Modal verb
Negative
Short form
 
can
cannot
can’t
 
could
could not
couldn’t
 
may
may not
mayn’t is formal and very rare
 
might
might not
mightn’t
 
must
must not
mustn’t
 
ought
ought not to
oughtn’t to
 
shall
shall not
shan’t
 
will
will not
won’t
 
would
would not
wouldn’t
 
 
Phrasal verbs
 
A phrasal verb is a type of verb that is created when a main verb is combined with either:
 
an adverb:
take off
give in
blow up
bleak in
 
an preposition
get at (someone)
pick on (weaker children)
 
or an adverb + preposition:
put up with (insults)
get out of (doing something)
 
Often the meaning has nothing to do with the literal meaning of the verb or the particle( the adverb or preposition).

adverb

adverb[ˈædvɜːb ]
(adverbs)N-count An adverb is word such as 'slowly', 'now', 'very', 'politically', or 'fortunately' which adds information about the action, event, or situation mentioned in a clause.

adverb group[ˈædvɜːb ɡruːp]
N-count An adverb group or adverbial group is a group of words based on an adverb, such as 'very slowly', or 'fortunately for us'. An adverb group can also consist simply of an adverb.

Adverbs
Adverbs can sometimes be difficult to identify because the term ‘adverb’ covers several quite different types of word. However, the basic characteristic of an adverb is that it gives information about the way that an action is carried out or when and where it take place.
 
「副詞」という用語にはいくつかの全く異なる種類の単語が含まれるため、副詞を特定するのが難しい場合があります。ただし、副詞の基本的な特徴は、動作が実行される方法、またはそれがいつ、どこで行われるかについての情報を与えることです。
(google翻訳)
 
Most adverb are formed by adding -ly to the end of the related adjective:
 
slow → slowly
clever →　cleverly
annual →　annually
 
Words which end in -ble drop the -e before -ly is added. So do the words true and due:
 
sensible →　sensibly
suitable →　suitably
true →　truly
due →　duly
 
Adjectives that end in -y change to -I before adding -ly, unless, like sly or dry, they have only one syllable:
 
happy →　happily
greedy →　greedily
sly → slyly
 
Some adverbs keep the same spelling as the adjective to which they are related. It is often difficult tell at first whether the word is an adjective or an adverb. The general rule is to look at the other words which it occurs with. if it comes before a noun it is probably an adjective:
 
a short way
a late meeting
a long pause
an early lecture
 
If it relates to a verb or adjective it is probably an adverb:
 
The lesson was cut short.
We met late at night.
Don’t stay long.
He came in early.
 
Sentence adverbs are used at the beginning of sentences or clauses.
They can be adverbs ending in -ly or other adverbs, e.g. nevertheless, however:
 
Foolishly, I gave him my address.
Actually I don’t mind.
Nevertheless, we must give him an answer.
 
Adverbs of degree are words like rather, quite, too, and almost, and they come before adjectives or other adverbs:
 
She seems rather nice.
Angus is a very good tennis player.
She began to cry, quite loudly.
 
Some adverbs of place have the same spelling as prepositions. However, these adverbs do not have an object, and are often found at the end of sentence or clause:
 
He rushed in.
She hurried over.
The two friends fell out.
 
Just like adjectives, some adverbs have comparative and superlative forms There are usually formed with more and most:
 
Could you speak more slowly please?
Mrs Kay’s class behaved the most sensibly.
 
To indicate the opposite of comparatives and superlatives, less and least are used:
 
I checked her work a bit less thoroughly this time.
This product worked the least effectively.
 
Note the adverb forms of good and bad:
 
adjective good
adverb well
comparative adverb better
superlative adverb the best
 
adjective bad
adverb badly
comparative adverb worse
superlative adverb the worst

Determiners（Re-posting）

[dɪˈtɜːmɪnəz]
 
A determiner is used to point more precisely to the person, thing, or idea that is being talked about. Determiners make the reference of nouns more specific. If I say this car it is clear that I mean a particular car which is near me. If I change it to my car I am saying something quite specific about ownership.
 
Determiners include:
 
・The indefinite article(a) and the definite article (the).
 
・Words known as demonstratives, that show where something is especially in relation to the speaker or writer : this, that, these, those.
 
・Words known as quantifiers, that show the amount of something: some, any, few, enough, much.
 
・Cardinal numbers(one, two, three, etc.) and ordinal numbers(first, second, third, etc.)
 
・Words known as distributives : each, every, either, neither.
 
・Words known as exclamatives, that are used in exclamations: what, such.
 
 

Preposition

[ˌprɛpəˈzɪʃᵊn]

〚文法〛前置詞　略prep
 
preposition
N-count
A preposition is a word such as ‘by’, ’for’, ’into’, ‘or’, ‘with’ usually has a noun group as its object.
 
Tick all the sentences that contain a preposition.
 
prepositional phrase[ˌprɛpəˈzɪʃᵊnᵊl freɪz]
N-count
A prepositional phrase is a structure consisting of a preposition and its object. Examples are ‘on the table’ and ‘by the sea’.
 
Prepositions[ˌprɛpəˈzɪʃᵊn]
 
prepositions is one of a small but very common group of words that relate different items to each other. Most English prepositions have a number of meanings that are particular to each preposition.
 
Simple prepositions consist of one word, e.g. in, on, under. Complex prepositions consist of more than one word, e.g. due to, together with, on top of, in spite of, out of.
 
The list below shows all the common simple prepositions. Some words can be either prepositions or adverb, depending on how they are used and what they combine with. The words in Italics are the prepositions that can also be used as adverbs.
 
aboard
above
across
after
against
along
alongside
amid
among
around
as
at
atop
bar
before
behind
below
beneath
beside
between
beyond
by
despite
down
during
for
from
in
inside
into
like
near
of
off
on
onto
opposite
outside
over
past
pending
per
prior
pro
re
regarding
round
since
than
through
throughout
till
to
towards
under
underneath
until
unto
up
upon
via
with
within
without
 
In modern English, it is usually considered acceptable to end a sentence with a preposition, though in very formal written English, you may want to avoid it:
 
That’s the girl we were talking about. (= acceptable for most forms of writing)
That’s the girl about whom we were talking .( = very formal)

Conjunction

[kənˈʤʌŋkʃᵊn]

N-count In grammar, a conjunction is a word or group of words that joins together words, groups, or clauses. In English, there are co-ordinating conjunction such as ‘and’ and ‘but’ and subordinating conjunctions such as ‘although’, ‘because’ and ‘when’.
 
Conjunction[kənˈʤʌŋkʃᵊnz]
A conjunction joins two or more nouns or clauses to each other. Conjunctions are sometimes called ‘joining words’.
 
I went to the shop and bought some bread.
I bought some bread but I forgot to get the milk.
 
In most formal writing, it is not considered good style to start a sentence with a conjunction. However, in more creative styles of writing. this is sometimes done for effect.
 
I did not expect him to give me any financial support. Or any support at all, come to that.

(2024.6.10　preposition conjunctionを加筆)

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