模擬TOEFL iBT005 リーディング問題 - 手洗い習慣の始まり

こちらのリスニング問題とある意味で対になっているリーディング問題を今回はお届けしたい。テーマは手洗い。マスクをしている人は激減したが、手洗いとうがいの習慣はかなり根付いたのではないかと思っている。その手洗いの重要性を医学的に初めて訴えたセンメルヴェイスに敬意を表して今回のパッセージと問題を作成した。Enjoy!

                                           Ignaz Semmelweis

Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis was a Hungarian physician and scientist whose advocacy for hand hygiene in medical settings contributed to the foundation of modern infection control practices. Semmelweis was born in Buda, Hungary, in 1818 and studied medicine at the University of Vienna. He worked as an assistant in the maternity ward of the Vienna General Hospital and observed that a high percentage of women who gave birth there died from puerperal fever, a type of infection that occurred after childbirth. Despite the prevailing medical theory that infections were caused by bad air or "miasma" and were not contagious, Semmelweis hypothesized that the doctors were transmitting "cadaveric particles" from autopsies they performed to the women they were delivering, leading to the spread of infection.

To test his hypothesis, Semmelweis instituted a policy of hand washing with chlorinated lime solution between autopsy and delivery procedures in the doctors' ward. The mortality rate in the doctors' ward plummeted dramatically, from about 18% to 2%, underpinning Semmelweis' idea that it could prevent the transmission of infections. However, his ideas were met with resistance and ridicule from the medical establishment, which was deeply entrenched in the miasma theory and the practice of bloodletting and other ineffective treatments. Semmelweis faced significant opposition and criticism, and his career and mental health suffered as a result.

To convince people and medical practitioners at the time, Semmelweis tried to present his findings in a variety of ways. He published papers in medical journals, gave lectures, and even wrote a book. He also tried to appeal to the emotions of his audience by describing the suffering of the women who were dying from puerperal fever. One of the main reasons for Semmelweis's lack of success was that his ideas contradicted the prevailing medical theory at the time. The miasma theory, which held that diseases were caused by bad air, was widely accepted. Semmelweis's suggestion that puerperal fever was caused by contagious particles was met with skepticism and disbelief. Another reason for Semmelweis's opposition was that his ideas challenged the authority of the medical establishment. The doctors who performed autopsies were some of the most respected members of the profession. Semmelweis's accusation that they were responsible for the deaths of women in childbirth was seen as a direct attack on their reputations.

Despite the opposition he faced, Semmelweis remained steadfast in his belief that hand hygiene was essential to preventing the transmission of puerperal fever. He continued to speak out against the miasma theory and to advocate for his methods. However, the stress and frustration of his situation eventually took their toll on his mental and physical health. He died in 1865 at the age of 47. Although Semmelweis' contributions to public health were not fully appreciated during his lifetime, his ideas were further developed and promoted by other scientists and physicians after his death. The Germ Theory of Disease, which postulated that infectious diseases were caused by microorganisms such as bacteria, was established in the late 19th century, providing a scientific basis for Semmelweis' observations and recommendations. The adoption of hand hygiene and other infection control measures became more widespread in the 20th century, particularly after the discovery and development of antibiotics and vaccines.

Fast forward to the Covid-19 pandemic, Semmelweis' contribution to public health was revisited as the world faced the novel coronavirus. The importance of hand hygiene and the transmission of infections via contaminated surfaces were once again emphasized as crucial to controlling the spread of the virus. Governments, public health authorities, and medical professionals stressed the importance of hand hygiene and recommended frequent hand washing or sanitizing as a simple and effective way to prevent the transmission of Covid-19. Moreover, the use of masks, social distancing, and other public health measures have become the norm in many countries, reflecting the importance of infection control and the lessons learned from Semmelweis' work. His legacy is now recognized as one of the most important discoveries in the history of medicine. His advocacy for hand hygiene in medical settings laid the foundation for modern infection control practices and helped save countless lives. 

Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis was a Hungarian physician and scientist whose advocacy for hand hygiene in medical settings contributed to the foundation of modern infection control practices. Semmelweis was born in Buda, Hungary, in 1818 and studied medicine at the University of Vienna. He worked as an assistant in the maternity ward of the Vienna General Hospital and observed that a high percentage of women who gave birth there died from puerperal fever, a type of infection that occurred after childbirth. Despite the prevailing medical theory that infections were caused by bad air or "miasma" and were not contagious, Semmelweis hypothesized that the doctors were transmitting "cadaveric particles" from autopsies they performed to the women they were delivering, leading to the spread of infection.

1. The word “prevailing” in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to

(A) typical
(B) dominant
(C) widespread
(D) obsolete

To test his hypothesis, Semmelweis instituted a policy of hand washing with chlorinated lime solution between autopsy and delivery procedures in the doctors' ward. The mortality rate in the doctors' ward plummeted dramatically, from about 18% to 2%, underpinning Semmelweis' idea that it could prevent the transmission of infections. However, his ideas were met with resistance and ridicule from the medical establishment, which was deeply entrenched in the miasma theory and the practice of bloodletting and other ineffective treatments. Semmelweis faced significant opposition and criticism, and his career and mental health suffered as a result.

2. The word “underpinning” in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to 

(A) reviewing
(B) supporting
(C) undermining
(D) contradicting

3. The word “it” in paragraph 2 refers to

(A) Semmelweis’ idea
(B) the transmission of infections
(C) autopsy
(D) a policy of hand washing

To convince people and medical practitioners at the time, Semmelweis tried to present his findings in a variety of ways. He published papers in medical journals, gave lectures, and even wrote a book. He also tried to appeal to the emotions of his audience by describing the suffering of the women who were dying from puerperal fever. One of the main reasons for Semmelweis's lack of success was that his ideas contradicted the prevailing medical theory at the time. The miasma theory, which held that diseases were caused by bad air, was widely accepted. Semmelweis's suggestion that puerperal fever was caused by contagious particles was met with skepticism and disbelief. Another reason for Semmelweis's opposition was that his ideas challenged the authority of the medical establishment. The doctors who performed autopsies were some of the most respected members of the profession. Semmelweis's accusation that they were responsible for the deaths of women in childbirth was seen as a direct attack on their reputations.

4. Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 3 as something Semmelweis did? 

(A) write medical articles
(B) make his points clear in lectures
(C) peruse numerous books
(D) let people imagine the suffering of patients

5. Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 3 as a reason that Semmelweis’s efforts were not acknowledged?

(A) His ideas were at odds with the mainstream theory of the time. 
(B) Many people believed in the miasma theory back then.
(C) Autopsists received significant respect for their work in those days.
(D) He was one of the few doctors who could perform autopsies in his time.

Despite the opposition he faced, Semmelweis remained steadfast in his belief that hand hygiene was essential to preventing the transmission of puerperal fever. He continued to speak out against the miasma theory and to advocate for his methods. However, the stress and frustration of his situation eventually took their toll on his mental and physical health. He died in 1865 at the age of 47. 

6. What can be inferred from paragraph 4?

(A) Semmelweis gave up on his theory at some point.
(B) Semmelweis gradually agreed with the miasma theory.
(C) No one took him seriously when Semmelweis was alive. 
(D) Puerperal fever was successfully treated by the doctors at the time.

Although Semmelweis' contributions to public health were not fully appreciated during his lifetime, his ideas were further developed and promoted by other scientists and physicians after his death. The Germ Theory of Disease, which postulated that infectious diseases were caused by microorganisms such as bacteria, was established in the late 19th century, providing a scientific basis for Semmelweis' observations and recommendations. The adoption of hand hygiene and other infection control measures became more widespread in the 20th century, particularly after the discovery and development of antibiotics and vaccines.

7. The word “postulated” in paragraph 5 is closest in meaning to

(A) excluded
(B) suggested
(C) stipulated
(D) contradicted

8. Which of the following best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence? Incorrect answer choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

Fast forward to the Covid-19 pandemic, Semmelweis' contribution to public health was revisited as the world faced the novel coronavirus. The importance of hand hygiene and the transmission of infections via contaminated surfaces were once again emphasized as crucial to controlling the spread of the virus. Governments, public health authorities, and medical professionals stressed the importance of hand hygiene and recommended frequent hand washing or sanitizing as a simple and effective way to prevent the transmission of Covid-19. Moreover, the use of masks, social distancing, and other public health measures have become the norm in many countries, reflecting the importance of infection control and the lessons learned from Semmelweis' work. His legacy is now recognized as one of the most important discoveries in the history of medicine. His advocacy for hand hygiene in medical settings laid the foundation for modern infection control practices and helped save countless lives. 

(A) His conviction about hand hygiene in hospitals had nothing to do with the development of modern infection control measures or the treatment of numerous people’s lives.

(B) He was able to introduce a modern infection control of hand hygiene into clinics and hospitals due to the medical discoveries made by those who set foot in the same path before him. 

(C) He saved the lives of so many people by passing down the traditional medical practice of handwashing from his predecessors. 

(D) His unwavering belief in the importance of clean hands in providing medical care paved the way for new prevention practices, contributing to saving so many human lives.

9. In paragraph 3 of the passage, there is a missing sentence. The paragraph is repeated below and shows four letters (A, B, C, and D) that indicate where the following sentence could be added. 

However, his efforts were largely met with resistance and ridicule. 

Where would the sentence best fit?

[A] To convince people and medical practitioners at the time, Semmelweis tried to present his findings in a variety of ways. He published papers in medical journals, gave lectures, and even wrote a book. [B] He also tried to appeal to the emotions of his audience by describing the suffering of the women who were dying from puerperal fever. [C] One of the main reasons for Semmelweis's lack of success was that his ideas contradicted the prevailing medical theory at the time. The miasma theory, which held that diseases were caused by bad air, was widely accepted. Semmelweis's suggestion that puerperal fever was caused by contagious particles was met with skepticism and disbelief. [D] Another reason for Semmelweis's opposition was that his ideas challenged the authority of the medical establishment. The doctors who performed autopsies were some of the most respected members of the profession. Semmelweis's accusation that they were responsible for the deaths of women in childbirth was seen as a direct attack on their reputations.

10. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. Write your answer choices in the spaces where they belong. You can either write the letter of your answer choice or you can copy the sentence.

Ignaz Semmelweis was a pioneer of infection control practices.
・
・
・

(A) He discovered that hand washing could prevent the spread of disease that affected women after childbirth.
(B) Despite facing resistance from the medical establishment, he continued to advocate for hand hygiene.
(C) The medical practitioners at the time quickly embraced Semmelweis’ new ideas and practices.
(D) His new discovery began to be gradually adopted by healthcare professionals before his passing.
(E) His legacy was recently revisited as the importance of hand washing and other infection control measures gained attention.
(F) His influence was such that hand hygiene had been well practiced among countries even before the outbreak of Covid-19.

正答
Question 01   (C)
Question 02   (B)
Question 03   (D)
Question 04   (C)
Question 05   (D)
Question 06   (C)
Question 07   (B)
Question 08   (D)
Question 09   [C]
Question 10   (A), (B), (E)