Pragmatism in America ---Philosophical Tips for Better Understanding America

Pragmatism was a philosophical movement that emerged in the United States in the 1870s,

against the backdrop of a society that had cultivated a tradition of practicality since its founding. [i] It is important here to be cautious not to confuse the term with "practicalism" or "utilitarianism," since what it aims at goes far beyond mere practicality or utility. The history, key figures, and principles of this movement can be gleaned from the "Pragmatism" entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, which will be summarized below:

Pragmatism was launched in the 1870s, by American philosophers Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914), William James(1842-1910), and John Dewey (1859-1952). These three are referred to as the "classical pragmatist triumvirate." Following the deaths of Peirce and James, Dewey took the lead, along with contemporaries like George Herbert Mead(1863-1931) and C. S. Lewis (1898-1963), and later, W. V. O. Quine (1908-2000), Hillary Putnam (1926-2016), Donald Davidson (1917-2003), and Richard Rorty (1931-2007) carried on the tradition. Of course, many other notable philosophers and thinkers have been involved in this movement as well.[ii]

Thus, from the late 19th century through the 20th century and into the early 21st century, pragmatism has been consistently passed down. However, it hasn't always been smooth sailing during this time. John Dewey, the youngest member of the original triumvirate succeeding Peirce and James, lacked enthusiastic successors, and after his death in 1952, stagnation set in from the 1940s, persisting until the late 1970s. Richard Rorty, deeply influenced by Dewey's philosophy, played a crucial role in revitalizing pragmatism. His publication of Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature in 1979 sparked a resurgence, bringing pragmatism back into the limelight from 1980 onwards, continuing to the present day. Notable figures actively contributing to pragmatism today include Stephen Stich (1943-), Susan Haack (1945-), Robert Brandom (1950-), Cornel West (1953-), Cheryl Misak (1961-), and others.

Looking at it this way, the history of pragmatism from its inception to the present day coincides with a period in which America, previously divided by the Civil War, unified, established its system, made its debut on the world stage, and rose to become a major power, experiencing unprecedented prosperity. The birth and growth of pragmatism owe much to American society, and conversely, one could argue that American society owes much to pragmatism. They have mutually influenced each other. To understand pragmatism, it seems necessary to understand American society, and conversely, understanding American society may require an understanding of pragmatism.

The essence of pragmatism can be summarized in the following way

"An ideology or proposition is true if it works satisfactorily; the meaning of a proposition is to be found in the practical consequences of accepting it, and impractical ideas are to be rejected." Therefore, ideas that fail to function satisfactorily and do not yield practical results are discarded as meaningless. To borrow the words of James and Dewey, it can be distilled into: "The truth is what ‘works’: true hypotheses are useful, and vice versa."

At first glance, this might seem like a simplistic approach, but it is not. It contains a sharp critique of the dualism that has persisted since ancient Greece. It challenges the notion that theory and practice, or knowledge and action, exist as separate dimensions. By emphasizing that practice and action are the foundation of theory and knowledge, pragmatism has influenced not only American but also European intellectual circles. In essence, it involves ceasing the pursuit of abstract, absolute, and universal ideals detached from the realities of human society, and instead addressing issues inherent in human society and prioritizing practicality and action towards their resolution. In other words, theory and knowledge are judged based on practice and action. While engaging in inquiry, therefore, philosophers should adhere to the maxim: "What concrete practical difference would it make if my theory were true and its rival(s) false?"

Rorty, the leading figure of neo-pragmatism,[iii] who was deeply inspired by Dewey's philosophy, turned his attention to culture in light of these ideas. He argued that culture, traditionally considered a static heritage, is an ongoing conversation in which interpretations of evolving practices and activities unfold. He asserted that the purpose of philosophy lies in exploring how various voices from fields such as science, philosophy, art, ethics, religion, and others, which constitute the dynamic conversation of culture, are related. Essentially, he advocated for a departure from traditional epistemology centered on the pursuit of universal, absolute, and transcendental ideals, and instead emphasized the pursuit of understanding the practices of relative cultures—the art of understanding—as the proper domain of epistemology.

The assessment of whether a theory is correct

is not based on comparing it with pre-collected data but rather on scrutinizing the practical outcomes afterward.[iv] Dewey, James, and others go further to assert that "theory is a tool for dealing with reality." They emphasize that the effectiveness of a theory lies in its problem-solving capacity. It should not merely provide temporary emotional or subjective comfort but must be reliable enough to confront significant difficulties repeatedly over time and remove them.

What classical pragmatists such as Peirce, James, Dewey, and neo-pragmatists like Rorty and Davidson have in common is their critique of (1) rationalism(Noam Chomsky), often referred to as Descartes' Cartesianism, [v]and (2) epistemology advocated by British empiricists like Locke, Hume, and Berkeley. As is well-known, these two opposing philosophies have divided the Western philosophical arena since the 17th century.

Cartesianism, from its dualistic perspective of mind-body separation, regards beliefs stemming from lower-level perceptions and sensations, such as bodily experiences, as subjective and dismisses them. Instead, it pursues only transcendent, objective, and universal truths belonging to the higher realm of the mind. Hence, Cartesianism rejects subjective beliefs as false, while pragmatism argues that beliefs are the rules guiding our practices and actions. Beliefs are considered working hypotheses generated in our judgment processes and are crucial elements in constructing knowledge. In essence, if the truth of a theory is judged by its practical outcomes, and beliefs influence both practice and judgment processes, then dismissing beliefs, as Cartesian rationalism does, becomes an unrealistic approach.

Additionally, while Locke and other British empiricists share the idea of perceiving things through sensations and perceptions, pragmatists sharply diverge from Locke's empiricism regarding the process of turning perceptions and sensations into knowledge. Locke argued that the information we perceive is automatically accepted and becomes knowledge. In contrast, Peirce, James, Dewey, and others argued that individuals actively select and reject perceptions to form knowledge. Karl Popper, who discussed scientific methodology and problem-solving, mocked Locke's perspective as the "bucket theory" of knowledge. Locke believed that the human mind is a “blank slate (tabla rasa) ” at birth, and individuals come to know the world through experiences perceived by the senses. However, Popper criticized this as the "bucket theory," asserting that the mind is not merely a receptacle for information but an active agent in knowledge acquisition.[vi]

To elaborate further, pragmatism adopts the position of fallibilism,

asserting that "knowledge is fallible." Therefore, knowledge obtained through experience cannot directly become knowledge that works in reality. Hence, pragmatism, as suggested by Dewey's book Logic: The Theory of Inquiry (1938), assigns considerable importance to inquiry. Dewey criticized Locke's perspective, which equated knowing with simply accepting perceptual information, calling it the "spectator theory of knowledge." In pragmatism, knowledge is not a passive process but rather the culmination of an active process called inquiry, or in other words, the fruition of a problem-solving process that leads from doubt to belief. To effectively conduct inquiry, pragmatism emphasizes the importance of experimentation, which involves manipulating and changing reality. Perceived phenomena do not automatically become knowledge; instead, they undergo processing through active inquiry to form knowledge. Knowing is an active act, and therefore, we assert that we are agents, not mere recipients. Dewey referred to this as the "experimental theory of knowledge," distinguishing it from Locke's "spectator theory of knowledge."

It is not an overstatement to say that pragmatism has expended considerable energy in transforming the tradition of empiricism

. Naturally, such an active form of empiricism confronts various phenomena in the real world. Moreover, rather than simply accepting, it accumulates knowledge actively through inquiry, aiming to understand relative rather than absolute aspects. It is quite natural that differences of opinion arose from the outset, considering pragmatism as a diverse and heterogeneous school of thinking, lacking any strict doctrines, ideologies, or party lines. Therefore, even Peirce and James had discrepancies in their respective assertions, with Peirce reportedly disliking the term "pragmatism" used by James and preferring to use "pragmaticism."

Such diversity and relativity can be seen as a distinctly American characteristic that has naturally emerged in American society. Based on this characteristic, it seems that social orders have been formed to address the ever-changing reality. From the perspective of societies lacking diversity, this may cause a sense of discomfort, but the world is increasingly moving towards greater diversity. It seems not coincidental that pragmatism regained prominence since the 1980s when globalization, characterized by diversity and relativity, began to take center stage.

In this way, the influence of pragmatism is felt throughout America.

Naturally, it is reflected not only in kindergarten through 12th-grade education but also in higher education and beyond. To illustrate, every year, Science Olympiad is held in the United States, which is truly a comprehensive science competition that embodies pragmatism. With a wide variety of events and diverse content, participants must utilize their inquiry skills to analyze and solve specific challenges and produce results. Various events are prepared, including Forensics, Bridge Building, Wind Power, and Write it Do it.

Participants, while grappling with specific challenges, must repeatedly experiment and present concrete results based on the most workable hypotheses generated during the process. Their inquiry, action, and creativity are put to the test. The team that presents the most workable model emerges victorious, as specific results are assessed. This indeed requires the abilities needed for the development of next-generation advanced technologies. Problems focusing solely on mathematics, physics, chemistry, or biology are not presented. Instead, questions are posed that require collaboration not only among the so-called science subjects but also with knowledge from humanities and social sciences.

America is undoubtedly a hub for such collaboration-based advanced research. It seems that the tradition of pragmatism also permeates these advanced studies. It's worth experiencing for young people in Japan. Winning schools are not only prestigious prep schools aimed at renowned universities but also schools with active extracurricular activities like Steven High School, Solon High School, Mason High School, and Troy High School.

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[i] This essay was originally written in Japanese for students interested in studying at an American university.

[ii] Peirce and James belonged to The Metaphysical Club, founded by Harvard graduates from various fields, including Chauncey Wright (1830-1875), and were influenced by it. The term "pragmatism" appeared in 1898, used in James's lecture titled "Philosophical Conceptions and Practical Results" at the University of California. However, James himself stated that it was a term coined by Peirce. Nevertheless, Peirce himself seemed to have reservations about James's ideas and stubbornly adhered to the term "pragmaticism" that he created.

[iii] The term "neo-pragmatists" is used to distinguish recent active pragmatists such as Rorty, Putnam, and Davidson from the early pragmatists.

[iv] This reminds us of Marshall McLuhan’s remark “the medium is the message” by which he emphasized the effect, not the content, of a medium (any human creation).

[v] Descartes' "Cogito, ergo sum" refers to the pursuit of the mental truth he proposed (cogito = I think).

[vi] Karl Popper’s All Life is Problem Solving (1999), p.72: "I have refuted classical empiricism - the bucket theory of the mind that we obtain knowledge just by opening our eyes and letting the sense-given or god-given ‘data’ stream into a brain that will digest them."