平等/不平等
平等 / Equality / Gleichheit / Égalité
All men, among themselves, are by nature equal. The inequality we now discern hath its spring from the civil law.――――Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
If nature therefore have made men equal, that equality is to be acknowledged: or if nature have made men unequal, yet because men that think themselves equal will not enter into conditions of peace, but upon equal terms, such equality must be admitted.―――Leviathan Chapter XV, Hobbes
（“… That every man acknowledge other for his equal by nature.”）
※ホッブス『リヴァイアサン』における第9の自然法
Leviathan
CHAPTER XIII
Of the Natural Condition of Mankind
As Concerning Their Felicity, and Misery
Nature hath made men so equall, in the faculties of body, and mind; as that though there bee found one man sometimes manifestly stronger in body, or of quicker mind then another; yet when all is reckoned together, the difference between man, and man, is not so considerable, as that one man can thereupon claim to himselfe any benefit, to which another may not pretend, as well as he. For as to the strength of body, the weakest has strength enough to kill the strongest, either by secret machination, or by confederacy with others, that are in the same danger with himselfe.
And as to the faculties of the mind, (setting aside the arts grounded upon words, and especially that skill of proceeding upon generall, and infallible rules, called Science; which very few have, and but in few things; as being not a native faculty, born with us; nor attained, (as Prudence,) while we look after somewhat els,) I find yet a greater equality amongst men, than that of strength. For Prudence, is but Experience; which equall time, equally bestowes on all men, in those things they equally apply themselves unto. That which may perhaps make such equality incredible, is but a vain conceipt of ones owne wisdome, which almost all men think they have in a greater degree, than the Vulgar; that is, than all men but themselves, and a few others, whom by Fame, or for concurring with themselves, they approve. For such is the nature of men, that howsoever they may acknowledge many others to be more witty, or more eloquent, or more learned; Yet they will hardly believe there be many so wise as themselves; for they see their own wit at hand, and other mens at a distance. But this proveth rather that men are in that point equall, than unequall. For there is not ordinarily a greater signe of the equall distribution of any thing, than that every man is contented with his share.
Equality Proceeds Diffidence
From this equality of ability ariseth equality of hope in the attaining of our ends. And therefore if any two men desire the same thing, which nevertheless they cannot both enjoy, they become enemies; and in the way to their end (which is principally their own conservation, and sometimes their delectation only) endeavour to destroy or subdue one another. And from hence it comes to pass that where an invader hath no more to fear than another man's single power, if one plant, sow, build, or possess a convenient seat, others may probably be expected to come prepared with forces united to dispossess and deprive him, not only of the fruit of his labour, but also of his life or liberty. And the invader again is in the like danger of another…
And from this diffidence of one another, there is no way for any man to secure himselfe, so reasonable, as Anticipation; that is, by force, or wiles, to master the persons of all men he can, so long, till he see no other power great enough to endanger him: And this is no more than his own conservation requireth, and is generally allowed. Also because there be some, that taking pleasure in contemplating their own power in the acts of conquest, which they pursue farther than their security requires; if others, that otherwise would be glad to be at ease within modest bounds, should not by invasion increase their power, they would not be able, long time, by standing only on their defence, to subsist. And by consequence, such augmentation of dominion over men, being necessary to a mans conservation, it ought to be allowed him.
Diffidence War
That in the nature of man, we find three principall causes of quarrel. First, Competition; Secondly, Diffidence; Thirdly, Glory.
The first, maketh men invade for Gain; the second, for Safety; and the third, for Reputation. The first use Violence, to make themselves Masters of other mens persons, wives, children, and cattell; the second, to defend them; the third, for trifles, as a word, a smile, a different opinion, and any other signe of undervalue, either direct in their Persons, or by reflexion in their Kindred, their Friends, their Nation, their Profession, or their Name.
There is Alwayes Warre Of Every One Against Every One Hereby
It is manifest, that during the time men live without a common Power to keep them all in awe, they are in that condition which is called Warre; and such a warre, as is of every man, against every man. For WARRE, consisteth not in Battell onely, or the act of fighting; but in a tract of time, wherein the Will to contend by Battell is sufficiently known: and therefore the notion of Time, is to be considered in the nature of Warre; as it is in the nature of Weather. For as the nature of Foule weather, lyeth not in a showre or two of rain; but in an inclination thereto of many dayes together: So the nature of War, consisteth not in actuall fighting; but in the known disposition thereto, during all the time there is no assurance to the contrary. All other time is PEACE.
The Elements of Law, Natural and Politic
Political egalitarianism 政治的平等
Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826)
Les hommes naissent et demeurent libres et égaux en droits. Les distinctions sociales ne peuvent être fondées que sur l'utilité commune.
Déclaration des droits de l'Homme et du citoyen de 1789, Article premier
The doctrine that all men are, in any sense, or have been, at any time, free and equal, is an utterly baseless fiction.――――Thomas Henry Huxley (1825-1895)
The inherent vice of capitalism is the unequal sharing of blessings. The inherent virtue of Socialism is the equal sharing of miseries.
Winston Churchill, House of Commons, 22 October 1945
「天は人の上に人を造らず人の下に人を造らずと云へり」
（福沢 諭吉『学問のすゝめ』）
「すべて国民は、法の下に平等であつて、人種、信条、性別、社会的身分又は門地により、政治的、経済的又は社会的関係において、差別されない。」（日本国憲法 第十四条）
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Adopted and proclaimed by General Assembly
resolution 217A (III) of 10 December 1948
Preamble
Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world, Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which human beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and want has been proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the common people, Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of law, Whereas it is essential to promote the development of friendly relations between nations, Whereas the peoples of the United Nations have in the Charter reaffirmed their faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person and in the equal rights of men and women and have determined to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom, Whereas Member States have pledged themselves to achieve, in cooperation with the United Nations, the promotion of universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms, Whereas a common understanding of these rights and freedoms is of the greatest importance for the full realization of this pledge, Now, therefore, The General Assembly, Proclaims this Universal Declaration of Human Rights as a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations, to the end that every individual and every organ of society, keeping this Declaration constantly in mind, shall strive by teaching and education to promote respect for these rights and freedoms and by progressive measures, national and international, to secure their universal and effective recognition and observance, both among the peoples of Member States themselves and among the peoples of territories under their jurisdiction.
Article 1 All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
Article 2 Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or territory to which a person belongs, whether it be independent, trust, non-self-governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty.
Article 3 Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.
Article 4 No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms.
Article 5 No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.
Article 6 Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the law.
Article 7 All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal protection of the law. All are entitled to equal protection against any discrimination in violation of this Declaration and against any incitement to such discrimination.
Article 8 Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the competent national tribunals for acts violating the fundamental rights granted him by the constitution or by law.
Article 9 No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile.
Article 10 Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal, in the determination of his rights and obligations and of any criminal charge against him.
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
PART II
Article 2
2. The States Parties to the present Covenant undertake to guarantee that the rights enunciated in the present Covenant will be exercised without discrimination of any kind as to race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.
Article 3
The States Parties to the present Covenant undertake to ensure the equal right of men and women to the enjoyment of all economic, social and cultural rights set forth in the present Covenant.
この規約の締約国は、この規約に定められたすべての経済的、社会的及び文化的権利の享有について男女平等の権利を確保することを約束する。
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)
PART II
Article 2
1. Each State Party to the present Covenant undertakes to respect and to ensure to all individuals within its territory and subject to its jurisdiction the rights recognized in the present Covenant, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.
Article 3
The States Parties to the present Covenant undertake to ensure the equal right of men and women to the enjoyment of all civil and political rights set forth in the present Covenant.
PART III
Article 26
All persons are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to the equal protection of the law. In this respect, the law shall prohibit any discrimination and guarantee to all persons equal and effective protection against discrimination on any ground such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD)
PART I
Article 2
1. States Parties condemn racial discrimination and undertake to pursue by all appropriate means and without delay a policy of eliminating racial discrimination in all its forms and promoting understanding among all races, and, to this end: (a) Each State Party undertakes to engage in no act or practice of racial discrimination against persons, groups of persons or institutions and to en sure that all public authorities and public institutions, national and local, shall act in conformity with this obligation; (b) Each State Party undertakes not to sponsor, defend or support racial discrimination by any persons or organizations; (c) Each State Party shall take effective measures to review governmental, national and local policies, and to amend, rescind or nullify any laws and regulations which have the effect of creating or perpetuating racial discrimination wherever it exists; (d) Each State Party shall prohibit and bring to an end, by all appropriate means, including legislation as required by circumstances, racial discrimination by any persons, group or organization; (e) Each State Party undertakes to encourage, where appropriate, integrationist multiracial organizations and movements and other means of eliminating barriers between races, and to discourage anything which tends to strengthen racial division.
Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), New York, 18 December 1979
PART I
Article 2
States Parties condemn discrimination against women in all its forms, agree to pursue by all appropriate means and without delay a policy of eliminating discrimination against women and, to this end, undertake: (a) To embody the principle of the equality of men and women in their national constitutions or other appropriate legislation if not yet incorporated therein and to ensure, through law and other appropriate means, the practical realization of this principle;
(b) To adopt appropriate legislative and other measures, including sanctions where appropriate, prohibiting all discrimination against women;
(c) To establish legal protection of the rights of women on an equal basis with men and to ensure through competent national tribunals and other public institutions the effective protection of women against any act of discrimination;
(d) To refrain from engaging in any act or practice of discrimination against women and to ensure that public authorities and institutions shall act in conformity with this obligation;
(e) To take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women by any person, organization or enterprise;
(f) To take all appropriate measures, including legislation, to modify or abolish existing laws, regulations, customs and practices which constitute discrimination against women;
(g) To repeal all national penal provisions which constitute discrimination against women.
PART IV
Article 15
1. States Parties shall accord to women equality with men before the law.
2. States Parties shall accord to women, in civil matters, a legal capacity identical to that of men and the same opportunities to exercise that capacity. In particular, they shall give women equal rights to conclude contracts and to administer property and shall treat them equally in all stages of procedure in courts and tribunals.
3. States Parties agree that all contracts and all other private instruments of any kind with a legal effect which is directed at restricting the legal capacity of women shall be deemed null and void.
4. States Parties shall accord to men and women the same rights with regard to the law relating to the movement of persons and the freedom to choose their residence and domicile.
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近代の平等観念（17-18C）；「自然的平等」
Hobbes，John Locke，Rousseau
◎ 政治的平等 Political equality
● 前提として、財産権及び経済的自由があるものと一般に考えられる。
● 広義の「平等」とは、社会的資源や負担の分配、褒賞・制裁・賠償の決定において「無関係」（irrelevant）な差異による差別を排除することであり、この意味において「等しきは、等しく扱うべし」という正義の理念に同じ。参考；『岩波 哲学・思想事典』（岩波書店, 1998）平等 p.1341 〔井上 達夫〕※西洋の平等理念に関して、【自然と作為】【形式と実質】【基準と対象】という視点で論じている。
◎ 絶対的平等と相対的平等
不平等である結果としての「貧困」を捉える場合には、絶対的貧困と相対的貧困というように考える。しかしながら、絶対的貧困は、特定の社会的な文脈で理解しなければならないという課題がある。また、相対的貧困は、生活における物質面のものだけでなく、社会諸活動への参加や生活様式その他の慣習を保つ生活資源の有無として量らなければならない。この生活資源とは、食糧や生活必需品等の諸サービスを購入するための社会保障給付を意味している。基本的に「社会参加」という視点は、まず生活資源を得た上での参加であるので、それは、物質的に貧困を捉えていることに等しい。
◎ 形式的平等と実質的平等
法の前の平等
「等しい者を等しく、等しくない者を等しくなく扱うべし」（法諺）
主権平等の原則
◎ 機会の平等（機会均等）Equal opportunity
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不平等社会
；《格差-不平等》をめぐって
◍ 絶対的貧困 Absolute poverty / Absolute deprivatio
◍ 結果の不平等か、機会の不平等か！？
◍ 経済的不平等と社会的不平等との関連性
経済的不平等について
社会的不平等とは？
● 社会的資源の配分が不平等であること。
● 経済的な隔たりが大きいほど社会的不平等観を引き起こす。
● 個人が社会における地位・階級・交流に等しく属していない状態。
● 社会的不平等と経済的不平等とは異なるものの、両者には関連性がある。
ただし、要点は以下に示す。
＜結果の不平等＞と＜機会の不平等＞とに区別する。
＜結果の不平等＞とは；社会的資源の保有量に差異がある。
＜機会の不平等＞とは；社会的資源を保有する機会に差異がある。
● 社会的不平等は、人種差別や男女差別、経済的不平等に関連付けられる。また、カーストや社会階級なり世代間の意識の差異にも起因している。
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「社会的不平等」は、従来の階級闘争的な＜貧富の格差＞で語られがちである。しかしながら、社会的排除論においては、単に経済力に裏打ちされたような社会的地位に留まらず、あらゆる属性（国籍・地域・年齢・性別・ジェンダー・健康・学歴・職業その他の環境）において長く決定付けされることで引き起こされてきた社会格差のことである。社会の中心と周縁という社会的不平等性の概念の適用になる。また、ある組織内部におけるインサイダー Insider と外部におけるアウトサイダー Outsider という見立てが存在する。さらに、今日では＜情報の非対称性＞の観点から検証すべきテーマであり、すなわち、社会から排除されるということは、個々人におけるその立ち遅れに原因があるのではなく、むしろ、昨今の政治及び経済の趨勢になっているように、自分たちの勝敗に囚われて、とにかく先を行こうとする社会現象の中に顕著なことではなかろうか。社会から取り残されていくということは、疎外感や孤独という問題でもあるから、現実的には見えにくい社会的側面がある。そういう性格については、想像できない人間なだけ、到底理解しがたいことになるのだと思われる（一般に、社会の中で問題なく活発に活動できているような類の人間がそうである）。確かに、統計データからはっきり導かれるような一つの基準による平均値としての格差論も重要なことではある。しかしながら、現に差別扱いを受けて発覚するような問題だけではなく、個人と社会との接点に関する歴史的精神構造における見えない差別に対しても積極的に取り上げるべきだろう。何らかの理由によって公共政策や特定の社会的利益による恩恵を十分に施されてこなかったり、長い間、受けられにくくなってきた人々の状況をもしっかり把握されるべきことである。
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ジェンダー論；「ジェンダー平等」「ジェンダー不平等」
ジェンダー思想と政治
First-wave feminism
オランプ・ド・グージュ
女性および女性市民の権利宣言
メアリ・ウルストンクラフト
『女性の権利の擁護』
Liberal feminism
女性参政権 Women's suffrage
Second-wave feminism
Third-wave feminism
Postfeminism
Fourth-wave feminism
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ジェンダーと現代文学
Doris May Lessing (1919-2013)* described the female exprience epically, who with ecepticism, fire and visionary power has subjected a divided civilsation to scrutiny.
女性の経験を叙事詩的に描いた。懐疑と激情、予見力をもって、分裂する現代を吟味し、題材にした。
*She was awarded the 2007 Nobel Prize in Literature. Her novels include The Grass Is Singing (1950), the sequence of five novels collectively called Children of Violence (1952–1969), The Golden Notebook (1962), The Good Terrorist (1985), and five novels collectively known as Canopus in Argos: Archives (1979–1983).
Drucilla Cornell
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ジェンダー論の労働経済学への応用
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貧困問題（格差と貧困）
近代日本における貧困の歴史
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籠山 京『国民生活の構造』（長門屋書房, 1943）
安藤 政吉『国民生活費の研究』（1944）
籠山 京『貧困と人間』（河出書房, 1953）
中鉢 正美『生活構造論』（好学社, 1956）
江口 英一『社会福祉と貧困』（法律文化社, 1981）
橘木 俊詔（たちばなき としあき）
佐藤 俊樹『不平等社会日本 さよなら総中流』（中公新書, 2000）
佐藤 俊樹『格差ゲームの時代』（中公文庫, 2009）
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マイケル・ジーレンジガー 著, 河野 純治 訳『ひきこもりの国 なぜ日本は「失われた世代」を生んだのか』（光文社, 2007）
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「貧困」に関するキーワード
いじめ 階層化社会 格差拡大 格差ゲーム 学歴 心の貧困（精神的貧困） 健康の社会的決定要因 公的扶助 子どもの貧困 差別 ジェンダー 自殺 社会福祉 社会保障 宗教 少子高齢化社会 女性の貧困 所得格差 人口減少 生活保護 政治的対立 世代間格差 中間層の崩壊 中間層の没落 8050問題 非正規雇用 貧困の世代間連鎖 貧困ビジネス 分断社会 暴力 ポピュリズム ヤングケアラー
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Amartya Sen
Inspired by "Social Choice and Individual Values derives" (1951) by Kenneth J. Arrow, Amartya Sen devoted himself to the study of Social choice theory. In his quest for Arrow's impossibility theorem, he mathematically proved that the two elements of the liberal values Pareto principle and Autonomy's approval are incompatible. He clarified the fundamental tension that exists between economics and ethics. I think this Meaning strongly impresses Welfare's limit, which is based on the Pareto principle that relies on Utility, and gives an opportunity to incorporate the importance of Society and Ethics into it.
『不平等の再検討 潜在能力と自由』（岩波書店, 1999）
『不平等の経済学』（東洋経済新報社, 2000）
Capability approach 潜在能力アプローチ
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Social Justice and the City（『都市と社会的不平等』）, 1973
批判地理学 Critical geography
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『21世紀の不平等』
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『21世紀の資本』（トマ・ピケティ）
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『暴力と不平等の人類史 戦争・革命・崩壊・疫病』
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