日本と日本人：位置、土壌、気候、習慣など

1860年6月16日付 ニューヨークタイムズ紙より　自動翻訳

日本大使館の来日に伴い、日本と日本人に関するあらゆる事柄に関心が寄せられていることから、この特異な民族に関して既に知られている主要な事実を、情報を得る手段が限られている読者のために整理してみました。

日本帝国は、アジア大陸の東海岸に位置する一連の島々で構成されています。日本は、ニホン、キウシ、リトコクフという3つの大きな島で構成されています。最大の島はニホンで、その面積は10万平方マイルと推定され、英国の約5分の1に相当する。日本の東側に最も近い陸地はカリフォルニアで、その距離は5,000マイル、中国は420マイル、カムティスカは270マイル離れています。日本という名前は、中国語の「太陽の源の王国」という意味の言葉が転訛したもので、日本の独特の天空の特徴とまではいかなくても、天空の起源という考えと調和しています。

日本を取り巻く小さな島々は、概して岩だらけで不毛ですが、時に豊かで美しい島もあります。海岸へのアクセスが難しいのは、たくさんの岩や小島が通路を取り囲んでいるからだけではなく、海の他の地域よりも厳しい風がこの狭い海をかき乱すからである。ケンプファーは、自然がこれらの島々を、他の島々から隔離された独立した小さな世界のように設計したようだと述べている。それは、海岸に近づくことを危険にさらすだけでなく、贅沢と快適さに必要なあらゆるものを豊富に与え、他国との交易なしに生活できるようにしたからである。確かに、自然の障壁は、日本政府が排他的な政策を実行する上で大きな助けとなったかもしれませんが、このような鎖国の動機は、はるかに異なる理由にあります。1549年にフランシス・ザビエルのもとにやってきた初期のローマ人宣教師たちは、日本人に親切に迎えられたが、精神的な戦利品に満足せず、世俗的な権力を侵害しようとしたため、政府を刺激して迫害が続き、1637年4月12日には37,000人のキリスト教徒が死刑になった。同時に政府は、日本を世界から孤立させる結果となる命令を出しました。この布告により、日本の船、ボート、日本出身者は、死の罰則の下、日本を出たり戻ったりすることは許されませんでした。

日本の気候は、その南端と北端で大きく異なります。南部では、多くの点でイギリスの気候に似ていると言われています。緯度33度の九州島にある長崎では、1月の平均気温は35度、8月は華氏98度であった。雨は1年のどの季節にも頻繁に降りますが、特に7月と8月は雨が多くなります。12月と1月には、非常に温暖な冬を除いて、地面は霜で覆われ、時には雪が降ることもあります。夏は、昼間は南から、夜は東から吹く海風で土地が冷やされます。
主要な島々の表面は、一般的に非常に不規則ですが、内陸部にはかなりの広さの平原があります。多くの場所では、丘が海辺に向かって下っていたり、海とその底の間に狭い帯状の土地しか残っていません。死火山であるFusiが最も高い山と言われていますが、その頂上は万年雪に覆われています。

川は数多くありますが、短く、浅く、急流です。重い船は通れませんが、いくつかの川は海から数マイルのところまで小舟で上ることができます。ニッポンの南部には、長さ60マイル、幅はほとんどないと言われる湖がある。

日本の植物は、ほとんどが温帯地域でよく見られるものです。しかし、木材は非常に不足しているため、許可なく木を伐採することは許されず、代わりに若い木を植えることが条件となっている。最も一般的な森の木はモミとシダーで、シダーは巨大なサイズに成長し、直径が18フィート以上になることもある。南部では、熱帯植物であるタケノコが野生または栽培されており、主に工場で使用されています。クスノキは非常に大きく成長し、寿命も長い。リーボルトは、ケンプファーが135年前に見たと言っていたクスノキを訪れた。それは頻繁に葉で覆われていて、周囲は50フィートだった。田舎の人々は、根と茎を小さく切ったものを煎じて樟脳を作る。栗やクルミの木、オレンジ、レモン、イチジク、プラムチェリー、アプリコットの木などが見られます。

日本政府の排他的政策により、日本政府は農業にかなりの注意を払わざるを得ず、島のどの部分も全く耕作できない状態になっています。丘陵の高い部分には段々畑が作られ、手作業で作業されており、自然の美しさを大いに引き立てています。彼らは、木を矮小化したり、不自然な大きさに成長させたりする技術に長けている。このような大規模な耕作により、野生動物が生息する余地はなく、飼いならされた動物は食用ではないため、必要以上に増やされることはない。馬は小さいが、丈夫で活動的である。牛や牛は耕すのに使われますが、ミルクやバターを使うのはイギリス人の野蛮な習慣であり、この商品でさえ彼らとの取引を望まないため、彼らの牛は搾乳のために飼われているのではなく、単に重荷として使われています。水牛は、ラクダのように背中に腰があり、並外れた大きさで、荷車を引いたり、重い荷物を背負ったりするのに使われています。

日本は中国に植民地化されたと考えられてきたが、その身体的特徴や言語からして、そのような考えは成り立たない。日本人自身、中国人と比較されるのは恥ずかしいことだと考えている。

日本人は、皇室を除いて、すべて世襲制の階級に分けられています。第一に、世襲の皇族、第二に、世襲の貴族で、自分の土地を領地として所有し、世襲の皇族の誰かに騎士や軍務を提供することを条件とする者、第三に、僧侶、第四に、軍人、または貴族の兵士、第五に、下級官吏や医師などの専門職、第六に、すべての職人を含む商人、第八に、未熟練の労働者である。最後の階級には、国民の大部分が属しており、彼らは実際には村民の状態にあり、農村労働者である限り、単なる土の住人である。
さらにもう一つの階級は、革、皮、毛皮を扱うすべての人で構成されており、彼らは常に動物の死骸に触れているため、永久に汚染された状態にあるとみなされている。彼らは他の人々と一緒に住むことは許されず、一人で村に住まなければならない。彼らは、茶店やその他の公共の娯楽の場に姿を現すことさえ許されず、彼らの階級ではない日本人は、彼らが食事をした器に触れたり使ったりすることはできません。この階級からは、牢屋と死刑執行人が出てくる。最初の4階級は2本の刀を、5階級は1本の刀を、そして最初の5階級は他の階級には禁止されている特定の種類のズボンを着用するという特権がある。それぞれの階級は他の階級に対して閉じられていますが、階級の分離の線が常に通れないというわけではないようです。16世紀末に在位した世俗的な皇帝の中で最も輝かしい人物は、木を削って運ぶ仕事をしていたことから王位についた。このように、すべての国において、優れた能力の力が感じられ、認められ、報われるのである。

日本の政治形態は、ヨーロッパ中世の封建制度に少なからず似ている。主権は最高統治者にありますが、国の大部分は臣下の王子たちに服従しており、彼らは最高統治者に貢ぎ物をしたり、軍事的に奉仕したりしています。すべての制度だけでなく、ほぼすべての役職が父から子へと継承されています。

日本には二人の主権者がおり、一人は世俗的な主権者と呼ばれ、もう一人は精神的な主権者と呼ばれている。この特徴は、日本の歴史では次のように説明されている。神の子孫とされる一族の君主が、西暦1195年までの1800年間、大日本帝国を統治していた。この時期、軍の司令官が反乱の鎮圧にあたっていたところ、自らも反乱を起こし、正統な君主から世俗的な権力の大部分を奪い、精神的な権力だけを残しました。それゆえに、今でも存在する特異な政府が生まれたのです。

霊的な力はミカド（帝）と呼ばれ、その宮廷はダリと呼ばれています。実際の君主はショーグン（将軍）と名乗っているが、クボ・ラマとも呼ばれており、これは元々の簒奪者の称号である。両君主は別々の宮廷とJの首都を持っています。精神的な支配者はミアコ（都）に、時間的な支配者はイェド（江戸）に住んでいます。ミカドは名目上の最高権力者ではあるが、一時的な権力は微塵も持っていない。文字通り、生まれてから死ぬまで、ミアコ（都）にある小さな公国に閉じこもっており、その収入とショーグン（将軍）から送られてくるプレゼントで満足しなければならない。彼は7年に一度、盛大にシオグンの訪問を受ける。ショーグン（将軍）の権力は、以前は大きかったものの、現在はかなり制限されています。ショーグン（将軍）は世襲制ですが、大評議会は彼を退けられる権限を持っています。評議会の重要な決議は常に彼の前に提示され、彼は通常、調査や遅延なしに同意します。しかし、すぐに同意しない場合や、ある施策に反対する場合は、直ちにショーグン（将軍）に最も近い王家の血を引く3人の王子の仲裁に委ねられ、その決定が最終的なものとなります。彼らが君主と意見を異にした場合、君主は即座に王位を息子か他の後継者に譲らなければならず、撤回する権限すらない。逆に、彼らが君主と意見が一致した場合は、否決された施策を提案した評議員は死ななければならず、彼を支持した者も死ななければならないことが多い。

臣下の王子たちは、自分の領土内で一種の主権を行使しており、帝国にとっての最大の危険はこれらの王子たちにあります。これらの王子の忠誠心を確保するために、彼らの家族は君主の宮廷に居住することが義務付けられており、彼ら自身も時間の半分を宮廷で過ごすことが義務付けられています。スパイも雇われており、彼らは知らないうちに公私にわたって彼らの行動を監視しています。すべての市や町は5つの家族のグループに分けられ、各メンバーは全体の行動に責任を負います。これらの家族の中で通常とは異なることが起こると、他の4人が非難から逃れるために即座に当局に報告します。王子であれ平民であれ、少しでも変化を示唆した最初の人物には必然的な破滅が訪れるからだ。

外国人に対する厳格な排他性は、政府が政策上の動機から制定した法律に過ぎず、日本人の感情ではない。

原文（OCR文）

JAPAN AND THE JAPANESE.; Location, Soil, Climate, Customs, &c.

The interest occasioned by the arrival of the Japanese Embassy in this country, in all things pertaining to Japan and the Japanese, has led us to collate some of the principal facts of interest, already known, concerning this peculiar race, for the benefit of our readers whose facilities for obtaining such information may not be the most extensive.

The empire of Japan consists of a chain of islands lying off the eastern coast of Continental Asia. Japan proper consists of three large islands, Niphon, Kiu-siu, and Lit-kokf. The largest of these is Niphon, and has an estimated area of 100,000 square miles, or about one-fifth larger than Great Britain. The nearest land to Japan on the east, is California, 5,000 miles distant; while China is 420 miles, and Kamtiscatka is 270 miles distant. The name Japan is a corruption of a Chinese word signifying "kingdom of the source of the sun," which harmonizes with the idea of their celestial origin, if not with their own peculiar celestial characteristics.

The smaller islands surrounding Japan proper are generally rocky and barren, but occasionally rich and beautiful. The coasts are difficult of access, not only from the multitude of rocks and islets which beset the passages, but also from the severe gales which more than in any other part of the ocean agitate these narrow seas. KEMPFER remarks that nature seems to have designed these islands to be a sort of little world, secluded and independent from the rest, as well by rendering it dangerous to approach their shores as by endowing them plentifully with everything necessary for luxury and comfort, and thus enabling them to subsist without any commerce with other nations. It is true, the natural barriers may have greatly assisted the Japanese Government in carrying out. their exclusive policy, but the motive for such seclusion is found in far different reasons. The early Romish missionaries, under FRANCIS XAVIER, in 1549, were kindly received by the Japanese, but, not content with their spiritual trophies, they attempted encroachments on the secular power, which so aroused the Government that persecution followed, and on the 12th of April, 1637, 37,000 Christians were put to death. At the same time the Government issued a decree which resulted in the isolation of Japan from the rest of the world. By this decree no Japanese ship, or boat, or native of Japan, was allowed to go from or return to Japan, under penalty of death.

The climate of Japan varies considerably between its southern and northern extremities. In its southern part it is said to resemble, in many respects, the climate of England. At Nagasaki, in the Island of Kiu-siu, lat. 33, the average temperature in the month of January was 35°, and in August 98° of Fahrenheit. Rain is frequent at all seasons of the year, but especially in the months of July and August. In December and January the ground is covered with hoar frost, and occasionally with snow, except in very mild Winters. In the Summer the land is cooled by the Sea-breeze, which blows from the south during the day and from the east during the night.

The surface of the principal islands is, in general, very irregular, though in the interior some plains of considerable extent occur. In many places hills descend close to the sea-shore, or leave only a narrow strip of land between the water and their bases. Fusi, an extinct volcano, is said to be the highest mountain, its summit being clad in perpetual snow.

The rivers are numerous, but short, shallow, and rapid. They are not navigable for vessels of burden, but some of them may be ascended by small boats for some miles from the sea. There is a lake in the southern part of Niphon said to be 60 miles in length, but of inconsiderable breadth.

The vegetable products of Japan are for the most part those common to temperate regions. Timber, however, is so scarce that no one is allowed to cut down a tree without permission, and then only on the condition of planting a young one in its stead. The most common forest trees are the fir and cedar -- the latter growing to an immense size, being sometimes more than 18 feet in diameter. In the South the bamboo cane, thought tropical plant, is found either in the wild or cultivated state, and is largely used in the manufactories. The camphor tree grows to a great size and lives to a great age. LIEBOLD visited one which KEMPFER had described as having been seen by him 135 years before. It was frequently covered with a foliage, and had a circumference of 50 feet. The country people make the camphor from a decoction of the root and stems cut into small pieces. Chestnut and walnut trees are both found, and so are the orange, lemon, fig, plum cherry and apricot trees.

The exclusive policy of the Japanese Government has compelled them to devote considerable attention to agriculture, and no part of the islands capable of cultivation at all is left unworked. In the higher part of the hills terraces are built and worked by hand, which greatly adds to the natural beauty of the scenery. They are very skillful in the art of dwarfing trees, and also stimulating their growth to an unnatural size. This extensive cultivation leaves no room for wild animals, and tame animals, not being used for food, are not multiplied beyond the felt necessity for their use. The horses are small, but hardy and active. Oxen and cows are used for plowing; but the use of milk and butter being a barbarous custom of the English, and not being willing to trade with them even in this commodity, their cows are not kept for their milking propensities, but are used simply as beasts of burden. Buffaloes, of an extraordinary size, with hunches on their backs, like camels, are used to draw carts and carry heavy goods upon their backs.

It has been supposed that Japan was colonized by the Chinese, but the physical characteristics and language of the people have rendered this opinion untenable. The Japanese themselves consider it a disgrace to be compared with the Chinese.

The Japanese are divided into classes which are all hereditary, and exclusive of the Imperial family, are: First, the hereditary vassal princes of the empire; second, the hereditary nobility, who hold their lands as fiefs, subject to render knight, or military service to some one of the hereditary princes; third, priests; fourth, the military, or soldiers of the nobility; fifth, the professional class, including inferior officials, medical practitioners, &c.; sixth, the mercantile class, including all crafts, and eighth, unskilled laborers. To the last class belong the great mass of the people, who are, in fact, in a condition of villenage, and in so far as they are rural laborers, mere occupants of the soil.

There is still another class, composed of all persons dealing in leather, skins and peltry; and who, from their constant contact with dead animal matter, are deemed in a state of perpetual pollution. They are not permitted to dwell among the rest of the people, but must live in villages by themselves. They dare not even appear in any tea-house, or other place of public amusement, and no Japanese not of their own class would ever touch or use a vessel out of which they had taken food. From this class are taken the jailors and executioners. The first four classes have the privilege of wearing two swords, the fifth of wearing one, and all the first five classes of wearing a particular kind of trowsers forbidden to the rest. Although the ranks of each are closed against the others, it does not appear that the line of class separation is always impassable. The most illustrious of all the secular Emperors, who reigned towards the end of the Sixteenth Century, rose to the throne from, being a hewer and carrier of wood. Thus among all nations the force of superior endowments is felt, acknowledged and rewarded.

The form of government of Japan resembles in no small degree the feudal system of mediaeval Europe. The sovereign power is lodged in a supreme ruler, but the greater part of the country is subject to vassal princes, who pay tribute or render military service to the lord paramount. Not only every institution, but nearly every office, is hereditary, descending from father to son.

There are two sovereigns in Japan: one of them termed the secular, and the other the spiritual, sovereign. This peculiarity is explained in Japanese history in the following manner: A single race of sovereigns, reputed to be descended from the gods, governed the Empire for eighteen hundred years, to A.D. 1195. At this period of time the commander of the army, while engaged in suppressing a rebellion, himself rebelled, and wrested from the lawful sovereign the greater part of the secular power, leaving to him little more than the spiritual power. Hence arose the singular government which still exists.

The spiritual power is known by the name of Mikado, and his court by the name of Dalri. The actual sovereign goes by the name of Siogun, but he is also called Kubo Lama, i.e., Lord Kubo, the title of the original usurper. Both princes have separate courts and J capitals. The spiritual chief resides at Miako; the temporal at Yeddo. The Mikado, though nominally supreme, has not a particle of temporal power, being literally, from birth to death, shut up in Miako, in his little principality, with the revenue of which, and the presents sent him by the Siogun, be must be content. He is visited by the Siogun in great pomp, once in seven years. The power of the Siogun, though formerly great, is now much limited. Although his office is hereditary, the Grand Council has the power of dethroning him. Important resolutions of the Council are always laid before him, and he generally assents without investigation or delay. But should he not at once grant his assent, or disapprove of a measure, it is immediately referred to the arbitration of three princes of the royal blood, most nearly related to the Siogun, and their decision is final. If they differ in opinion from the monarch, he must instantly relinquish the throne to his son, or some other heir, without even the power to retract. If, on the contrary, they agree with him, the member of the council who proposed the rejected measure must die, and not unfrequently all who supported him.

The vassal princes exercise a kind of sovereign power within their own Territories; and the chief danger to the empire lies in these princes. To secure the fidelity of these princes their families are obliged to reside at the court of the sovereign, and they themselves are obliged to remain there one-half of the time. Spies are also employed, who, unknown to them, watch their proceedings in private and in public. Every city or town is divided into groups of five families, and every member is held responsible for the conduct of the whole. Everything that occurs in these families out of the usual course is instantly reported to the authorities, by the other four, to save themselves from censure. This severe espionage may account for the fixedness of the laws and customs; for an inevitable doom meets the first person, be he prince or plebian, who suggests the slightest degree of change.

The rigid exclusiveness in regard to foreigners is a law merely enacted by the Government from motives of policy, and is not a sentiment of the Japanese people.

Their habits are social among themselves. Woman is recognized as a companion, and not merely treated as a slave. Their position is not so elevated as in those countries which are under the influence of Christianity; but the mother, wife, and daughter of Japan are neither the chattels and household drudges of China, nor the purchased objects of the capricious lust of the harems of Turkey. The fact of the non-existence of polygamy is a distinctive feature which predominantly characterizes the Japanese as the most moral and refined of all Eastern nations. The absence of this degrading practice shows itself not only in the superior character of the women, but in the natural consequence of the greater prevalence of the domestic virtues. Concubinage, however, is common, and prostitution prevails to a very great extent. Places called "Bagnios" are licensed, the proprietors of which are ranked with the merchants, and are entitled to wear one sword. There is a temple of Venus at Jeddo, which is as magnificent as a prince's palace, and contains six hundred priestesses. There is, however, something like a moral revenge inflicted upon the keepers of these establishments at their death; for although the bagnios are publicly licensed, they are held infamous, and when a keeper dies he is denied any other funeral than a dunghill.

In the brevity of the Japanese laws, and their summary method of executing them, our own legal department might perhaps learn a lesson. There are no professional lawyers, and every man is deemed competent to plead his own cause. If a party receives an injury, he applies to a magistrate, who summons the other party before him. The case is then stated by the complainant in his own way, and the accused is heard in his defence. The magistrate examines the witnesses, and the acuteness which he derives from experience enables him, in ordinary cases, to detect falsehood. He passes sentence, from which there is no appeal, and it is carried into execution instanter. If the matter in dispute be of great importance, the magistrate may refer it to the Emperor in Council. Sometimes, in trifling cases, he orders the parties to go and settle, the matter privately, with the aid of their friends; and it is well understood that the matter must be so settled, or unpleasant consequences will result.

There is no country in which life seems to be less valued than in Japan. Capital punishment extends even to the slightest offences, and suicide is not only frequent, but is considered meritorious. When an official has committed an offence, or even when there has been in his department a violation of law, although beyond his power of prevention, so sure is he of the punishment of death, that he reanticipates it by disembowelling himself. By this act he saves his property from forfeiture, and his family from death. Disembowelling is performed by making two incisions, in the form of a cross, over the abdomen, while a trusty follower stands by to complete the work by decapitation.

In some branches of the fine arts the Japanese have attained considerable skill. They are ignorant of anatomy and perspective, and therefore barbarous in their sculptures and landscapes, but in the representation of a single object, they manifest great accuracy of detail and a truthful adherence to nature. Architecture, as an art, can hardly be said to have an existence. Their temples, palaces and private houses being all low and temporary structures, generally of wood; and the frequency of earthquakes lead them to bestow less care on their buildings than perhaps they might do under other circumstances.

Reading and writing is universal even among the lowest ranks, and children of all ranks, high and low, and of both sexes, are obliged to attend the rudimentary schools. Colleges and academies are scattered among the towns throughout the empire. Immense numbers of cheap books are continually issuing from the Japanese press, designed for the instruction of the children of the poor people. Books of a higher order are published for the rich and better educated, reading being a favorite occupation of both sexes. The city of Mikado appears to be the great literary metropolis, and may be considered the "Athens" of Japan.

We have thus given to our readers something of Japan and the Japanese. To American energy and enterprise undoubtedly belongs the honor of again opening this, in many respects, favored country and. peculiar people to the commerce and civilizing influences of the world. As a nation, they are shrewd and cautious; and an improper motive is as readily detected by them and as quickly resented as by our own people. The importance of a successful issue to the mission of the present Japanese Embassy cannot be overestimated, for upon it hangs not only great commercial benefits to our own nation, but much good which may be expected to flow to the children of this far-off oriental clime.