(92) Section 4: The Rise and Fall of Polytheistic Civilization II

Chapter 1: The Indus

3-1 Hinduism’s Gods of Creation, Destruction, and Preservation

　　　At this point, things seem as clear as mud. The culture of the Indus Valley isn’t like its counterparts, the other three so-called “great civilizations” of Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Yellow River. What we’ve come to know about the latter simply cannot be applied to the former. 　　　They’re incomparable, which probably has something to do with our inability (still) to decipher Indus script.
　　　Until relatively recently, it was generally thought that, even after the Aryans conquered a weakened Indus civilization—something the same theory assumes was brought on by a major climatic shift—the indigenous culture underwent no change whatsoever. Because we had (and still have) no clear idea on how to decipher Indus script, we ascribed the mysterious destruction of the indigenous Indus culture to the Aryans, and presumed that the Aryans proceeded to then build their own new civilization, thereby pushing Indus script and the Indus civilization into oblivion.

▲Sanskrit script　 Copyright : wonderland / PIXTA

　　　But we know now this is more than likely a historical misreading. New archeological discoveries suggest the Indus civilization was, in fact, rather robust, and that the Aryan culture melded with the culture of the indigenous Indus. Either way, we still arrive at one unifying fact: our knowledge of the Indus civilization is hazy at best.
　　　Judaism, in contrast, is relatively straightforward. We know that it’s the religion of the Jewish people who, as nomads, once traveled the ancient Near East. And we know that it is the original monotheistic faith, which believes that Abraham, the forefather of the Jewish people, was chosen by the one and only God as the recipient of the Promised Land. That covenant with God, the religion believes, was realized through the prophet Moses and his leading of the Jewish people out of captivity in Egypt. We also know, of course, that the Roman Empire later destroyed the Promised Land, the ancient kingdom of Israel, leading to the Jewish diaspora, a dispersion of the Jewish faithful that continued through modern times.
　　　Similarly direct is Christianity’s “origin story,” which affirms that Jesus is simultaneously God and the son of God, a figure who, believers say, was born Jewish and later died a martyr for the forgiveness of humanity’s sins before being resurrected in exactly the first half of the first century AD. Christianity also asserts that the covenant made between God and the Jewish people is the Old Covenant, whereas the New Covenant represents a new relationship between God and all humanity.
　　　Then there’s Islam, another faith that can be summarized as having begun in the early seventh century when, Muslims believe, the Arabian prophet Muhammad received a revelation from Allah, the one and only God, before branching into the different sects of Sunni and Shia Islam.
　　　Even Buddhism, a religion that, like Hinduism, emerged in the Indus Valley region, can be summarized as the fifth-century BC religion founded by Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha) who, in the fundamental sense, chose asceticism to attain enlightenment.
　　　But attempting a similar outline of Hinduism is essentially impossible. Questions like when, how, and by whom the religion was founded remain unanswered. We know of no early holy men like Christianity’s Moses or Islam’s Muhammad who worked to propagate the faith. And there is no pivotal event like the Exodus or the Muslim Schism.
　　　Perhaps that is why, despite England’s lengthy colonial rule of the Indian subcontinent and the British nation’s efforts to understand Hinduism, even the famously lucid Encyclopedia Britannica presents a definition of Hinduism that is not so cut and dried:                     

　　　　　Hinduism, major world religion originating on the Indian
　　　　　subcontinent and comprising several and varied systems of
　　　　　philosophy, belief, and ritual. Although the name Hinduism is
　　　　　relatively new, having been coined by British writers in the first
　　　　　decades of the 19th century, it refers to a rich cumulative
　　　　　tradition of texts and practices, some of which date to the 2nd
　　　　　millennium BCE or possibly earlier. (Smith, Brian K., J.A.B. van
　　　　　Buitenen. Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. “Hinduism.” Encyclopedia
　　　　　Britannica, inc., 2018.　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism (religion))

　　　　　Trimurti, (Sanskrit: “three forms”) in Hinduism, triad of the three 
　　　　　gods Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. The concept was known at    
　　　　　least by the time of Kalidasa’s poem Kumarasambhava (“Birth of
　　　　　the War God”; c. 4th–5th century CE). (Encyclopedia Britannica,
　　　　　s.v. “Trimurti.” Encyclopedia Britannica, inc., 2015.
　　　　　https://www.britannica.com/topic/trimurti-Hinduism)

　　　　　Brahman is the creator, preserver, or transformer and reabsorber 　　　　　of everything. Hindus differ, however, as to whether this ultimate 　　　　　reality is best conceived as lacking attributes and qualities—the 　　　　　impersonal brahman—or as a personal God, especially Vishnu, 　　　　　　Shiva, or Shakti (these being the preferences of adherents called 　　　　　Vaishnavas, Shaivas, and Shaktas, respectively). Belief in the 　　　　　　importance of the search for a One that is the All has been a 　　　　　　characteristic feature of India’s spiritual life for more than 3,000 　　　　　years. (Naranayan, Vasudha, J.A.B. van Buitenen. Encyclopedia 　　　　　Britannica, s.v. “Hinduism.” Encyclopedia Britannica, inc., 2018.
　　　　　https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism/Practice)

 　　　The definition seems to raise more questions than it answers.

India’s Samsara

▲Hindu monk with sacred ox.　Copyright : ArthurBalitskiy

　　　So what about the so-called foundation of Hinduism? I touch upon Brahmanism toward the end of my previous installment, but let’s take a look at what Britannica has to say:

　　　　　Brahmanism, ancient Indian religious tradition that emerged from
　　　　　the earlier Vedic religion. In the early 1st millennium BCE,
　　　　　Brahmanism emphasized the rites performed by, and the status
　　　　　of, the Brahman, or priestly, class as well as speculation about
　　　　　brahman (the Absolute reality) as theorized in the Upanishads
　　　　　(speculative philosophical texts that are considered to be part of
　　　　　the Vedas, or scriptures). In contrast, the form of Hinduism that
　　　　　emerged after the mid-1st millennium BCE stressed devotion
　　　　　(bhakti) to particular deities such as Shiva and Vishnu.

　　　　　During the 19th century, the first Western scholars of religion to
　　　　　study Brahmanism employed the term in reference to both the
　　　　　predominant position of the Brahmans and the importance given
　　　　　to brahman (the Sanskrit terms corresponding to Brahman and
　　　　　brahman are etymologically linked). Those and subsequent
　　　　　scholars depicted Brahmanism either as a historical stage in
　　　　　Hinduism’s evolution or as a distinct religious tradition. However,
　　　　　among practicing Hindus, especially within India, Brahmanism is
　　　　　generally viewed as a part of their tradition rather than as a
　　　　　separate religion. (Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. “Brahmanism.” 　　　　　　Encyclopedia Britannica, inc., 2018.
　　　　　https://www.britannica.com/topic/Brahmanism)

　　　　　The legacy of Vedic worship is apparent in several aspects of
　　　　　modern Hinduism. The basic stratification of Vedic society into
　　　　　four varnas—the Brahmans (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors or
　　　　　rulers), Vaishyas (traders), and Shudras (servants)—by and large
　　　　　persisted in later Hinduism. Sacrifices performed according to
　　　　　Vedic rites continue to be performed in India occasionally, and 　　　　　　the offering of oblations to a sacred fire (homa) is an important
　　　　　element of much modern Hindu worship (see yajna). The Hindu
　　　　　rite of initiation (upanayama) is another direct survival of Vedic
　　　　　tradition. Vishnu and Shiva, the major deities of classical
　　　　　Hinduism, are briefly mentioned in Vedic mythology, and Indra
　　　　　remains the king of the gods in narratives, although he is no
　　　　　longer worshipped. (Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. “Vedic religion.” 　　　　　Encyclopedia Britannica, inc., 2017.
        　　　https://www.britannica.com/topic/Vedic-religion)

　　　From these definitions, Brahmanism seems a very digestible concept, so for now, I’d like to summarize Hinduism:

    1.) The terms Hinduism and Brahmanism (the former’s antecedent) are not theological labels coined by Hindus or Brahmanists, unlike the terms Christian and Islamic believers fabricated for their own faiths—they are terms of convenience conceived of by Western scholars.
　 2.) The fabric of Hindu society is the caste system, a system whose ideological basis is the subjugation of the indigenous peoples as slaves (slave class) by the Aryans.
　 3.) Initially a religion built on polytheistic ritual, Hinduism soon deified the Brahma, the principle that controls natural phenomena, teaching that this god, Brahma, is the singular greatest god in existence. In other words, Hinduism began a monotheistic faith and ended up a polytheistic ideology.

　  1.) As you know, this is necessary to keep in mind when exploring the Indus civilization and the Hindu religion.
　  2.) This piece presupposes the reader’s understanding of the notion of reincarnation or the cycle of death and rebirth. It affirms that the body will perish, but the spirit is eternal. That is, the spirit will inhabit the physical body of another (human or otherwise), and will be reborn in this world again.

　　　In essence, the belief contends that the human being (or more precisely, the spirit) is everlasting. But regardless of whether or not samsara—as it’s termed in India—predated the Aryan invasion or was created by the Aryans themselves (no one knows for certain), its sheer pervasiveness seems to tell us one thing: it was a fundamental religious concept embedded in Indus society from its inception.
　　　Interestingly, the idea of samsara is shared among all the religious traditions of India, from Brahmanism and Hinduism, to even the traditions that surfaced in their opposition such as Buddhism and Jainism.
　　　But how exactly is the human soul reborn?

　　　　　　　　　　　                    < Read the next installment January 1 >

Editor/ Noriko Knickerbocker , Aquarius Ltd.

Translator/ Matthew Hunter , Aquarius Ltd.

©Motohiko Izawa 2018 All rights reserved. No reproduction or republication without written permission.